0000067518 EnglishLangm loathing METHODOLOGY 3 Practicalities in an English Language Classroom Compiled and edited by Le Thuy Linh M ã số: 01.10/224 - Đ H 2013 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page PREFACE. Syllabus and Course b o o k. Using the syllabus. Choosing a co u rsebook.
Classroom M anagem ent. Classroom m anagem ent. Classroom inte ractio n s. Lesson P lann ing.
Varying lessons and evaluating le s s o n. Classroom Assessm ent and Testing. An overview of assessment and te s tin g. The purposes of te s tin g.
Types of tests and test ite m s. Qualities of a good te s t. Test writing techniques. 137 R EFER EN C ES.138 3 PREFACE ELT Methodology 3 is intended for pre-service teachers of English at Hanoi National University of Education and beyond.
This book together with ELT methodology 1 and 2 make a complete compiled and revised edition of the ELT methodology series. The book aims at providing student teachers with an insight into syllabus design, course materials adaptation, classroom management principles, lesson planning; an overview of language testing, the principles of assessment and related testing issues; skills of using and exploiting text books, of managing classroom, planning lessons, and managing classrooms; and the techniques of writing administering and marking classroom tests. This book contains 4 modules, 12 units covering four main areas related to English language teaching such as: (1) Syllabus and Coursebook, (2) Classroom management, (3) Lesson Planning, and (4) Classroom Assessment and Testing. Each module begins with specific aims to be achieved and is organized into several units with three sections.
The first section, Q uestions fo r discussion, can either be used as a brainstorming activity/lead-in at the beginning of a lesson or as homework from the end of previous lesson. There are some Readings that provide students with necessary information to answer the discussion questions and to implement the classroom tasks. The C lassroom Tasks that follow are designed to help the learners practise and apply the skills and information delivered. A list of Reading M aterials is introduced at the end of the book for self-study and for further investigation into the issues as required by the teachers.
The book can be flexibly and selectively deployed and exploited to serve different purposes and according to time constraints. I would like to express my special thanks to the authors, from whom I have not got any chance to ask for permission, whose books are the main sources on which this book bases. I am grateful to all owners of the set of pictures and ¡mages that I have used throughout the book. I would also like to thank my colleagues at the Faculty of English, Hanoi National University of Education for their support, encouragement and valuable comments concerning the contents and presentation of the book.
Syllabus: A Definition A syllabus is an expression of opinion on the nature of language and teaming; it acts as a guide for both the teacher and the learner by providing som e goals to be attained. Hutchinson and W aters (1987:80) define syllabus as follows: At its simplest level a syllabus can be described as a statem ent of what is to be learnt It reflects of language and linguistic performance. This is a rather traditional interpretation of syllabus focusing as it does on outcomes rather than process. However, a syllabus can also be seen as a "summary of the content to which learners will be exposed" (Yalden,1987: 87).
It is seen as an approximation of what will be taught and that it cannot accurately predict what will be learnt. Next, we will discuss the various types of approaches available to course designers and the language assumptions they make. Types of syllabuses a. Product-Oriented Syllabuses Also known as the synthetic approach, these kinds of syllabuses em phasize the product of language learning and are prone to intervention from an authority.
The Structural Approach Historically, the most prevalent of syllabus type is perhaps the grammatical syllabus in which the selection and grading of the content is based on the complexity and simplicity of grammatical items. The learner is expected to master each structural step and add it to his/her gramm ar collection. As such the focus is on the outcomes or the product. One problem facing the syllabus designer pursuing a grammatical order to sequencing input is that the ties connecting the structural items may De rather feeble.
A more fundamental criticism is that the grammatical syllabus focuses on only one aspect of language, namely grammar, whereas in truth there exist many more aspects to language Finally, recent corpus-based research suggests there is a divergence between the grammar of the spoken and of the written language raising implications for the grading of content in gramm ar based syllabuses 8 The above approaches belong to the product-oriented category of syl'abuses An alternative path to curriculum design would be to adopt process-oriented principles, which assume that language can be learnt expenentially as opposed to the step-by-step procedure of the synthetic approach. Process-Oriented Syllabuses Process-Oriented Syllabuses, or the analytical approach, developed as a result of a sense of failure in product-oriented courses to enhance communicative language skills. It is a process rather than a product. That is, focus is not on what the student will have accomplished on completion of the program, but on the specification of learning tasks and activities that s/he will undertake during the course Procedural/Task-Based Approaches Prabhu's (1979) 'Bangalore Project' is a classic example of a procedural syllabus.
Here, the question concerning 'what' becomes subordinate to the question concerning 'how'. The focus shifts from the linguistic elem ent to the pedagogical, with an emphasis on learning or learner. Within such a fram ework the selection, ordering and grading of content is no longer wholly significant for the syllabus designer. Arranging the program around tasks such as information-and opinion-gap activities, it was hoped that the learner would perceive the language subconsciously whilst consciously concentrating on solving the meaning behind the tasks.
There appears to be an indistinct boundary between this approach and that of language teaching methodology, and evaluating the merits of the former remain complicated. A task-based approach assumes that speaking a language is a skill best perfected through practice and interaction, and uses tasks and activities to encourage learners to use the language communicatively in order to achieve a purpose. Tasks must be relevant to the real world language needs of the student. That is, the underlying learning theory of task based and communicative language teaching seems to suggest that activities in which language is employed to complete meaningful tasks and enhances learning.
10 Learner-Led Syllabuses The notion of basing an approach on how learners learn was proposed by Breen and Candlin (1984). Here the emphasis lays with the learner, who it is hoped will be involved in the implementation of the syllabus design as far as that is practically possible. By being fully aware of the course they are studying it is believed that their interest and motivation will increase, coupled with the positive effect of nurturing the skills required to learn. However, as suggested earlier, a predetermined syllabus provides support and guidance for the teacher and should not be so easily dismissed.
Critics have suggested that a learner-led syllabus seems radical and utopian in that it will be difficult to track as the direction of the syllabus will be largely the responsibility of the learners. Moreover, without the mainstay of a course book, a lack of aims may come about. This leads to the final syllabus design to be examined; the proportional approach as propounded by Yalden (1987). The Proportional Approach The proportional syllabus basically attempts to develop an "overall competence" (op.
It consists of a number of elements with theme playing a linking role through the units. This theme is designated by the learners. It is expected initially that form will be of central value, but later, the focus will veer towards interactional components; the syllabus is designed to be dynamic, not static, with ample opportunity for feedback and flexibility (ibid: 100). The shift from form to interaction can occur at any time and is not limited to a particular stratum of learner ability.
As Yalden (ibid:87) observes, it is important for a syllabus to indicate explicitly what will be taught, "not what will be learned". This practical approach with its focus on flexibility and spiral method of language sequencing leading to the recycling of language, seems relevant for learners who lack exposure to the target language beyond the classroom. But how can an EFL teacher pinpoint the salient features of the approaches discussed above? 3. Syllabus Design and Evaluation Initially, several questions must be posed.
Do you want a product or process oriented syllabus? Will the course be teacher or learner led? W hat are the goals of the program and the needs of your students? This leads to an examination of 11 the degree to which the various elements will be integrated, which is of great significance to White (1988:92) who comments: A complete syllabus specification will include all five aspects: structure, function, situation, topic, and skills. The difference between syllabuses will lie in the priority given to each of these aspects. Eclecticism is a common feature of the majority of course books under the communicative banner currently on offer. Attempts to combine the various aspects of language have also been addressed by Hutchinson and Waters who state: Any teaching material must, in reality, operate several syllabuses at the same time.
One of them will probably be used as the principal organizing feature, but the others are still there (opcit. Conclusion Clearly, there is a vast amount of material to dissem inate when considering syllabus design. The numerous approaches touched on here all offer valuable insights into creating a language program. The synthetic approaches of structuralism, situational and functional-notional, all have objectives to be attained, a content to be processed and learnt.
The foundations of the product syllabuses remain fundamentally similar, whereas the underlying assumptions about language and language learning from the analytic approaches differ greatly: process type syllabuses assert that learning a language is transient and cannot be itemized; pedagogical procedure takes precedence over content. If our assumption about the nature of linguistics and language learning is one of "language as communication" (Richards and Rodgers, 1986:69), then a syllabus based around activities and tasks which promote real and meaningful communication will seem advantageous. Further points to consider when critically reviewing a syllabus are the objectives of the course as well as the needs of the learners. Ultimately, and perhaps ideally, a hybrid syllabus will result purely due to pragmatic reasons.
As Hutchinson and W aters (1987:51) suggest. It is wise to take an eclectic approach, taking w hat is useful from each theory and trusting also in the evidence of your own experience as a teacher. Thus, to what extent has an integration of the various approaches taken place? Does the syllabus specification include all aspects? If yes, how is priority 12 established? These questions must also form part of the criteria when designing or assessing your own syllabus. Process syllabus for the language classroom.
Brumfit (Ed ), General English syllabus design ELT Document, 118, Oxford: Pergamon Press, 47- 60 2. The Com municative Approach To Language Teaching. Syllabus design as a critical process, ELT Documents, No. "Monbusho Approved Textbooks in Japanese High School EFL Classes : an aid or a hindrance to educational policy innovations? ".
The Language Teacher 23, (10), 5- 15. English For Specific Purposes: A Learning Centred Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. London: Pergamon & The British Council, 29 6.
"Student Attitudinal Change over an Academic Year". The Language Teacher 23, (10), 17-27. "A Myth of Influence: Japanese university entrance exams and their effect on junior and senior high school reading pedagogy". Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Second Language Pedagogy. Approaches A nd Methods In Language Teaching.