Consumer Behavior This page intentionally left blank A01_THOM6233_05_SE_WALK.indd 9 1/13/17 6:50 PM Consumer Behavior Twelfth Edition Leon G. Schiffman Professor Emeritus of Marketing and E-Commerce Peter J. Tobin College of Business St. John’s University, New York City Joe Wisenblit Professor of Marketing Stillman School of Business Seton Hall University, New Jersey New York, NY Vice President, Business, Economics, and UK Courseware: Operations Specialist: Carol Melville Donna Battista Design Lead: Kathryn Foot Director of Portfolio Management: Stephanie Wall Manager, Learning Tools: Brian Surette Director, Courseware Portfolio Management: Ashley Dodge Content Developer, Learning Tools: Sarah Peterson Senior Sponsoring Editor: Neeraj Bhalla Managing Producer, Digital Studio and GLP, Media Production and Editorial Assistant: Linda Albelli Development: Ashley Santora Vice President, Product Marketing: Roxanne McCarley Managing Producer, Digital Studio and GLP: James Bateman Senior Product Marketer: Becky Brown Managing Producer, Digital Studio: Diane Lombardo Product Marketing Assistant: Marianela Silvestri Digital Studio Producer: Monique Lawrence Manager of Field Marketing, Business Publishing: Adam Goldstein Digital Studio Producer: Alana Coles Field Marketing Manager: Nicole Price Project Managers: Roberta Sherman and Kelly Murphy, SPi Global Vice President, Production and Digital Studio, Arts and Business: Interior Design: SPi Global Etain O’Dea Cover Design: SPi Global Director of Production, Business: Jeff Holcomb Cover Art: Zapp2Photo/Shutterstock Managing Producer, Business: Melissa Feimer Printer/Binder: LSC Communications, Inc./ Willard Content Producer: Sugandh Juneja Cover Printer: Phoenix Color/Hagerstown Copyright © 2019, 2015, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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| Wisenblit, Joseph, author. Title: Consumer behavior / Leon G. Schiffman, Joseph Wisenblit. Description: Twelfth edition.
| Upper Saddle River, New Jersey : Pearson Education, [2019] Identifiers: LCCN 2017037515 | ISBN 9780134734828 Subjects: LCSH: Consumer behavior. | Motivation research (Marketing) Classification: LCC HF5415.8/342--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.gov/2017037515 1 18 ISBN 10: 0-13-473482-3 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-473482-8 To Elaine, David, and Nikki Schiffman; Alan Sherman; Janet and Larry Cohen; Dana and Bradley Sherman; Melissa and Rob Slominsky; and Allison, Noah, Reid, Jordyn, Emily, Blake, and Grey. Leon Schiffman To my niece, Maya, and nephews Daniel, Eli, and Saul Wegarzyn. Joe Wisenblit This page intentionally left blank A01_THOM6233_05_SE_WALK.indd 9 1/13/17 6:50 PM Brief Contents Preface xxi PART I Consumers, Marketers, and Technology 2 1 Consumer Behavior and Technology 2 2 Market Segmentation and Real-Time Bidding 26 PART II The Consumer as an Individual 48 3 Consumer Motivation and Personality 48 4 Consumer Perception and Positioning 76 5 Consumer Learning 116 6 Consumer Attitude Formation and Change 142 PART III Communication and Consumer Behavior 166 7 Persuading Consumers 166 8 From Print and Broadcast to Social Media and Mobile Advertising 188 9 Reference Groups and Communities, Opinion Leaders, and Word-of-Mouth 212 PART IV Social and Cultural Settings 238 10 The Family and Its Social Standing 238 11 Cultural Values and Consumer Behavior 272 12 Subcultures and Consumer Behavior 294 13 Cross-Cultural Consumer Behavior: An International Perspective 318 PART V Consumer Decision-Making, Marketing Ethics, and Consumer Research 344 14 Consumer Decision-Making and Diffusion of Innovations 344 15 Marketers’ Ethics and Social Responsibility 362 16 Consumer Research 388 Endnotes 405 Glossary 433 Company Index 449 Name Index 455 Subject Index 465 Credits 477 vii This page intentionally left blank A01_THOM6233_05_SE_WALK.indd 9 1/13/17 6:50 PM Contents Preface xxi PART I Consumers, Marketers, and Technology 2 1 Consumer Behavior and Technology 2 The Marketing Concept 4 Market Segmentation, Targeting, and Positioning 5 Technology Benefits Consumers and Marketers 6 The Value Exchange 6 Lower Prices, More Information, and Customized Products 6 More Precise Targeting 9 Interactive Communications 11 Customer Value, Satisfaction, and Retention 12 Technology and Customer Relationships 12 Emotional Bonds versus Transaction-Based Relationships 14 Satisfaction and Customer Loyalty 15 Customer Loyalty and Profitability 16 Measures of Customer Retention 17 Social Responsibility and Ethics 18 Consumer Decision-Making 19 This Book 20 Employability 22 Brand Management 22 Advertising 22 Consumer Research 23 Summary 23 • Review and Discussion Questions 24 • Hands-on Assignments 25 • Key Terms 25 2 Market Segmentation and Real-Time Bidding 26 Market Segmentation 27 Demographics 28 Age 28 Gender 29 Households 29 Social Standing 29 Ethnicity 30 Lifestyles 30 Demographics and Geography 32 Product Benefits 33 Media Exposure 34 Product Usage 35 Selecting Target Markets 37 The Targeted Segment Must Be Identifiable 37 The Targeted Segment Must Be Profitable 37 ix x CONTENTS The Targeted Segment Must Be Reachable 39 Mobile Targeting 40 Real-Time Bidding 40 Profiling Impressions 41 The Real-Time Bidding Operation 42 Data Brokers 44 Advantages of Real-Time Bidding 44 Summary 45 • Review and Discussion Questions 46 • Hands-on Assignments 47 • Key Terms 47 PART II The Consumer as an Individual 48 3 Consumer Motivation and Personality 48 The Dynamics of Motivation 49 Needs 50 Need Arousal 50 Goals 50 Needs and Goals Are Interdependent 52 Frustration and Defense Mechanisms 53 Systems of Needs 54 Murray’s Psychogenic Needs 54 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 56 The Validity of Maslow’s Theory 57 Marketing Applications of Maslow’s Theory 57 Hidden Motives 58 Motives and Technology 59 Personality Development 60 Personality Reflects Individual Differences 60 Personality Is Consistent and Enduring 61 Personality Can Change 61 Freudian Theory 61 Neo-Freudian Personality Theory 62 Personality Traits 62 Innovators versus Laggards 63 Open- versus Closed-Minded 64 Conformity versus Individuality 64 Novel and Complex or Simple and Safe Experiences 65 Preference for Thinking 66 Preference for Written or Visual 66 Importance of Possessions 66 Compulsions and Fixations 67 Consumer Ethnocentrism 68 Personality and Color 68 Anthropomorphism 69 Product Personality and Gender 70 Product Personality and Geography 70 Self-Perception 70 The Extended Self 71 Altering the Self 71 Summary 72 • Review and Discussion Questions 74 • Hands-on Assignments 74 • Key Terms 74 CONTENTS xi 4 Consumer Perception and Positioning 76 Sensory Information 77 Sight 79 Scent 79 Touch 79 Sound 80 Taste 80 Sensory Input and Culture 81 The Absolute and Differential Thresholds 81 The Absolute Threshold 81 The Differential Threshold 82 Product Pricing and Improvements 82 Logos and Packaging 83 Subliminal Perception 85 Perceptual Selection 86 Stimuli’s Features 86 Personal Expectations 86 Consumer Motivation 87 Perceptual Selectivity 88 Perceptual Organization 88 Figure and Ground 88 Grouping 90 Closure 91 Interpretation: Cues 91 Integral Indicators 91 External Indicators 92 Stereotyping 92 Physical Appearance 93 Descriptive Terms 94 First Impressions 95 Halo Effect 95 Interpretation: Consumer Imagery 96 Perceived Value 96 Perceived Quality 97 Price–Quality Relationship 98 Brand Image 99 Package Perceptions/Image 101 Service Quality 102 Retail Store Perceptions/Image 103 Company Image 104 Risk Perception 105 The Components of Perceived Risk 105 Reducing Perceived Risk 107 Information 107 Brand Loyalty 107 Store Image 107 Price–Quality Relationship 107 Positioning and Repositioning 107 Umbrella Positioning 108 Premier Position 109 Positioning against Competition 109 Key Attribute 109 xii CONTENTS The Un-Owned Position 110 Changing Perceptions 110 Perceptual Mapping 112 Summary 113 • Review and Discussion Questions 114 • Hands-on Assignments 114 • Key Terms 115 5 Consumer Learning 116 The Elements of Consumer Learning 117 Motives 118 Cues 118 Responses 118 Reinforcement 118 Classical Conditioning 119 Associative Learning 120 Repetition Forms Association 120 Stimulus Generalization and Brands’ Extensions 122 Stimulus Discrimination and Brand Differentiation 124 Instrumental Conditioning 125 Reinforcement 125 Extinction and Forgetting 127 Customer Satisfaction and Retention 128 Shaping 128 Massed versus Distributed Learning 128 Observational Learning 128 Information Processing 129 Storing Data 129 Encoding Data 130 Retrieving and Retaining Data 131 Cognitive Learning 133 Consumer Involvement and Hemispheric Lateralization 134 Consumer Involvement 134 Measurements of Consumer Involvement 135 Strategic Applications of Consumer Involvement 135 Involvement and Context 136 Hemispheric Lateralization 136 Passive Learning 136 Outcomes and Measures of Consumer Learning 137 Recognition and Recall Measures 138 Brand Loyalty 138 Brand Equity 139 Summary 140 • Review and Discussion Questions 141 • Hands-on Assignments 141 • Key Terms 141 6 Consumer Attitude Formation and Change 142 Attitude Formation 143 Learning Attitudes 143 Personal Sources and Experiences 144 Personality Factors 144 Consistency with Behavior 144 Situational Factors 145 CONTENTS xiii The Tri-Component Attitude Model 145 The Cognitive Component 146 The Affective Component 146 The Conative Component 147 Changing Consumers’ Attitudes 148 Changing Beliefs about Products 148 Changing Brand Image 148 Changing Beliefs about Competing Brands 150 Attitude-Behavior Gap 150 Multiattribute Models 150 Attitude-toward-Object Model 150 Adding an Attribute 154 Changing the Perceived Importance of Attributes 154 Developing New Products 154 Attitude-toward-Behavior Model 154 Theory of Reasoned Action 155 Theory of Trying to Consume 155 Attitude-toward-the-Ad Model 155 Attitude-toward-Social-Media-Posts Model 156 Attitudes’ Motivational Functions 156 The Utilitarian Function 156 The Ego-Defensive Function 156 The Value-Expressive Function 157 The Knowledge Function 157 Associating Brands with Worthy Objects or Causes 157 The Elaboration Likelihood Model 158 Cognitive Dissonance and Conflict Resolution 159 Resolving Conflicting Attitudes 160 Causality and Attribution 160 Self-Perception Attributions 160 Foot-in-the-Door Technique 161 Attributions toward Others 162 Attributions toward Objects 162 Analyzing Self-Attributions 162 Summary 163 • Review and Discussion Questions 164 • Hands-on Assignments 164 • Key Terms 164 PART III Communication and Consumer Behavior 166 7 Persuading Consumers 166 The Elements of Communication 167 Source Credibility and Persuasion 167 Time Passage and Source Credibility 168 Barriers to Effective Communications 168 Psychological Selectivity 168 Message Clutter 169 Broadcasted versus Addressable Messages 170 The Evolution of TV Advertising 170 Addressable Communication 171 Message Structure 172 Image and Text 172 Framing 173 Framing Impact Behavior 173 xiv CONTENTS One- or Two-Sided 173 Native Ads 175 Order Effects 176 Persuasive Appeals 176 Comparative 177 Fear 178 Humor 179 Sex 181 Timeliness 182 Feedback and Effectiveness 183 Summary 185 • Review and Discussion Questions 186 • Hands-on Assignments 187 • Key Terms 187 8 From Print and Broadcast to Social Media and Mobile Advertising 188 Social Media and Consumer Behavior 190 Individuals and Networks 190 Consumer Engagement 191 Advertising on Social Media 193 Advertising Channels 193 Google 193 Advertising Strategies 195 Mobile Advertising 197 Consumer Response 197 Promotional Tactics 198 Advantages and Shortcomings 198 Desktop versus Mobile Devices 200 The Future 200 Advertising’s Reach and Efficacy 201 Analyzing Website Visits 201 Gauging Influence within Social Network 202 Google Analytics 202 Online Fraud and Unseen Ads 202 Pirated Content 202 Nielsen 203 Time-Shifted Viewing 203 Facebook, Google, and Twitter 203 Skipping and Blocking 204 Improved Measures of Social Activity 204 Traditional Media’s Evolution 205 Television 205 Radio 207 Print Media 207 Out-of-Home Media 208 Branded Content 208 Summary 209 • Review and Discussion Questions 210 • Hands-on Assignments 211 • Key Terms 211 CONTENTS xv 9 Reference Groups and Communities, Opinion Leaders, and Word-of-Mouth 212 The Credibility and Persuasive Power of Reference Groups 213 Consumption-Related Reference Group 214 Friends 214 Fellow Shoppers 215 Virtual Communities 215 Advocacy Groups 216 Factors Affecting Reference Group Influence 216 Conformity 216 Group Power 218 Product Expertise 218 Product Conspicuousness 218 Endorsers and Spokespersons 219 Celebrities 220 Salesperson Credibility 222 Vendor Credibility 222 Medium Credibility 223 Opinion Leaders and Word-of-Mouth 223 Characteristics of…