134 Naidu Chapter VIII Designing and Evaluating Instruction for e-Learning Som Naidu University of Melbourne, Australia The focus of this chapter of the section is on designing and evaluating e- learning environments and directions for research in technology enhanced learning generally. Its particular emphasis is on models and approaches to learning and teaching that stand to take greatest advantage of the unique attributes of online learning technologies. These include the flexibility that they afford because of their time and place independence and the possibility of access to a variety of electronic and multimedia-based materials. OBJECTIVES FOR THIS CHAPTER OF THE SECTION The specific objectives of this chapter of the section are to: 1.
Explore attributes and capabilities of online learning technologies and opportunities for e-learning that they afford 2. Explore limitations of contemporary practices in e-learning and examine innovative pedagogical designs for optimizing e-learning; 3. Discuss approaches to the evaluation of the impacts of technology enhanced learning and 4. Consider also some directions for further research in technology en- hanced learning Copyright © 2002, Idea Group Publishing.
Designing and Evaluating Instruction for e-Learning 135 ATTRIBUTES AND CAPABILITIES OF ONLINE EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGIES Online educational technologies are information and communica- tions technologies that enable the delivery and use of information and support communication in electronic formats. This section of the chapter will not attempt to describe the form and functions of these technologies as there is an abundance of literature in print as well as in electronic form on these technologies (see Collis, 1996; Rapaport, 1991; http:// osf1.edu/~montecin/platforms. Instead, it will briefly recount the critical and unique attributes of these technologies. These attributes are as follows: a) the flexibility that online educational technologies affords; and b) electronic access to a variety of multimedia-based material that these technologies enable.
The Flexibility that Online Educational Technology Affords Flexible access to information and resources is the key attribute of online educational technologies, and learner choice is at the heart of the concept of flexible access. This incorporates the facility to access subject matter content and support at a time, place and pace that is suitable and convenient for the individual learner, rather than the teacher and/or the educational organization. Flexible access to content and learning activities orchestrated via online educational technologies across conventional classrooms, workplaces, homes, and community centers is the defining characteristic of what has come to be known as distributed learning (Dede, 1996; 2000). Online educational tech- nologies such as various forms of “groupware” and computer conferencing technologies can support collaborative inquiry among students who are in different locations and often not available at the same time (Edelson, Gordin, & Pea, 1999; Edelson, & O’Neill, 1994).
Through a range of online learning technologies, learners and teachers can engage in synchronous as well as asynchronous interaction across space, time, and pace (Gomez, Gordin, & Carlson, 1995). With the help of these technologies and tele-mentors, students from different locations can create, share, and master knowledge about authentic real world problems (Edelson, Pea, & Gomez, 1996; Gordin, Polman, & Pea, 1994). Electronic Access To Hyper-Media And Multimedia-Based Resources Online educational technologies also enable the delivery of subject matter content in a variety of media formats that is not possible within the 136 Naidu spatial and temporal constraints of conventional educational settings such as the classroom or print materials (Dede, 2000). This means that learners in distributed educational settings can have access to a wide variety of educa- tional resources in a format that is amenable to individual approaches to learning (Spiro, Feltovich, Jacobson, & Coulson, 1991) and accessible at a time, place and pace that is convenient to them (Pea, 1994).
Typically these educational resources may include any combination of things like: • Hyper-linked textual material, incorporating pictures, graphics and animation • Videotaped elaboration of subject matter, including interviews and panel discussions • Hyper-linked multimedia elements such as QTVs, simulations, graphics and animations • Just-in-time access to a range of electronic databases, search engines and online libraries • Just-in-time access to coaching and assistance via tele-mentors, e- communities and peers However, the one limitation to this for many at the moment is the capability of their networks and bandwidth to deliver this information (Dede, 1991). But this situation is sure to change and for some, very rapidly indeed. OPPORTUNITIES FOR e-LEARNING THAT ONLINE TECHNOLOGIES AFFORD Research in learning and instruction suggests that people learn most effectively by pursuing realistic goals which are also intrinsically motivating (Schank, Fano, Jona, & Bell, 1994). Learning is greatly enhanced when it is anchored or situated in meaningful and authentic problem-solving contexts (Barron, Schwartz, Vye, Moore, Petrosino, Zech, Bransford, & The Cogni- tion and Technology Group at Vanderbuilt, 1998; Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; The Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt [CTGV], 1990).
While “goal-based learning” is not constrained by any particular media type, certain delivery technologies can impede anchored instruction or situated learning. Conventional classroom-based instruction for instance, while it may be cost-effective is constrained to a large extent by its fixed time and space in being able to situate learning in realistic contexts. Printed text as well, while it affords transportability, is limited by its inability to incorporate anything other than text, pictures and illustrations. Designing and Evaluating Instruction for e-Learning 137 Contemporary online educational technologies, with its temporal and spatial flexibility and its ability to support resource rich multimedia content, afford us the opportunity to develop educational opportunities that are known as “generative learning environments” (CTGV, 1991).
These are learning environments that are based on a theoretical framework that emphasizes the importance of anchoring or situating instruction in meaningful, problem- solving contexts. A major goal of this approach is to create shared learning environments that permit sustained exploration by students and teachers to enable them to understand the kinds of problems and opportunities that experts in various areas encounter and the knowledge that these experts use as tools. Experts are known to be very familiar with the endemic nature of their disciplines or domains of practice. In order for novices to approximate this level of familiarity with the discipline, they need to become immersed in the culture of that discipline.
This necessitates access to a range of resources and experiences, including multimedia-based simulation of components that are not readily accessible in real time, such as certain aspects of biological and medical science, engineering and educational practice. Online educational technologies afford the capability to house and deliver this kind of material. CONTEMPORARY PRACTICES IN e-LEARNING The use of the term elearning is growing rapidly and frequently being used interchangeably with terms such as online education, virtual learn- ing, distributed learning, networked learning, Web-based learning, and also open and distance learning. Despite their unique attributes, each of these terms fundamentally refers to educational processes that utilize information and communications technology (ICT) to mediate asynchro- nous as well as synchronous learning and teaching activities.
Indeed, with the exception of conventional print-based open and distance education, it can be argued that the emergence of elearning is directly linked to the development of and access to information and communications technol- ogy infrastructure. Without access to this kind of infrastructure support, the viability of such educational activities is undermined and those without access to such support are increasingly disadvantaged from accessing the educational opportunities they afford. Elearning appears to be growing out of three distinct directions: 1. From within educational institutions, which have historically offered open and distance learning opportunities either in a single, dual or mixed mode.
From conventional educational institutions that have never been in- volved in open and/or distance learning. Such institutions are applying information and communications technology to support and enrich their campus-based face-to-face learning and teaching experience. Their goal, in most cases, is to increase flexibility and efficiency in the belief that doing so will enable them to tap into niche markets and student populations, which were previously out of their reach. From the corporate sector, many of which are favoring elearning over residential workshop-based approaches to staff training and development.
The corporate world is increasingly finding elearning to be an attractive model as it searches for flexible and “just-in-time” learning opportunities. Forces driving the growth and development of elearning include: 1. The increasing accessibility of information and communications tech- nologies and also their decreasing cost. The capacity of information and communications technology to support and enrich conventional educational practices through resource-based learning and synchronous and asynchronous communication.
The need for flexible access to learning opportunities from distributed venues such as the home, workplace, community center, and the conven- tional educational institution. The demand from isolated and independent learners for more equitable access to educational opportunities and services. The belief among many educational institutions that the application of information and communications technology will enable them to in- crease their share in an increasingly competitive educational market. The need, among educational institutions, to be seen to be “keeping up with the times” in order to attract the attention of parents, students and other funding donors.
The belief and the expectation that online learning will reduce costs and increase productivity and institutional efficiency (for a detailed discus- sion of e-learning trends, see Rogers, In Press). Surveys by the United States Department of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics (2000) have found that the number of distance education programs in the United States of America has been increasing exponentially, and many more institutions plan to establish distance educa- tion programs within the next few years. The United States National Survey of Information Technology in Higher Education, as part of its Campus Computing Project, carries out surveys annually on the use of information and communications technology in higher education. One of its recent surveys (1999) reveals that: Designing and Evaluating Instruction for e-Learning 139 • Major challenges confronting colleges and universities in their use of information and communications technology include: a) getting faculty to integrate such technology into their teaching, b) providing adequate user support, and c) financial planning for information technology.
• An increasing number of college courses are incorporating ICT, includ- ing use of email, as part of their teaching and learning transactions, Internet resources as part of the syllabus, and the WWW for presenting course materials. • Students and faculty alike are spending an increasing amount of their study time on the Internet and both student and faculty percentages in this regard are highest in research universities. • Across all sectors of higher education, a growing number of institutions are using the WWW to provide students access to admission forms, financial aid applications, course catalogs, and other related material. Quality of e-Learning Practices In the midst of all this interest in and the proliferation of elearning, there is a great deal of variability in the quality of elearning and teaching.
This shouldn’t be any surprise, as there are just as many instances of poor and reckless face-to- face teaching as there are instances of excellence in that regard as well. A few years back, a group of adult educators from the University of British Columbia in Canada carried out an investigation of Web-based courses (Boshier, Mohapi, Moulton, Qayyaum, Sadownik, & Wilson, 1997). This is a somewhat dated study, and this snapshot of Web-based courses will be undoubtedly replaced by the fast pace of change in this area, but it does shed some interesting light on online learning and teaching practices, which are probably, on the whole, not very different at the moment. The focus of this investigation was on the attractiveness and face validity of ‘stand alone’ Web-based courses.
These researchers defined a ‘stand alone’ course as one that “might include supplemental material but can be completed entirely without face-to-face interaction with an instructor” (Boshier et al. Of the 127 subjects they reviewed, the investigators classed 19 of them as ‘not enjoyable’ to walk through, 42 were considered as ‘mildly enjoyable,’ 43 as ‘moderately enjoyable,’ 19 as ‘very enjoyable,’ and 4 as a ‘complete blast.