THE VULNERABILITY AND RESILIENCE OF HOUSEHOLDS IN VANUATU AND SOLOMON ISLANDS TO GLOBAL MACROECONOMIC SHOCKS A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Economics and Finance) by P. Lachlan McDonald MIntRel. University of Melbourne BEcon. Monash University School of Economics, Finance and Marketing College of Business RMIT University March 2014 ii DECLARATION I certify that except where due acknowledgement has been made, the work is that of the author alone; the work has not been submitted previously, in whole or in part, to qualify for any other academic award; the content of the thesis is the result of work which has been carried out since the official commencement date of the approved research program; any editorial work, paid or unpaid, carried out by a third party is acknowledged; and, ethics procedures and guidelines have been followed.
Lachlan McDonald 4th March 2014 RMIT University iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS So many people have assisted me with this research thesis. I’ve been incredibly privileged to have had such a large and supportive group of people around me. This research began as an idea between my supervisor Associate Professor Simon Feeny and my former manager at Oxfam, May Miller-Dawkins. I thank them for taking a chance on an ex-Central Banker and giving me the opportunity to manage this research project.
I also need to thank the many people that have been involved in this research in one way or another. I received considerable support from the fellow academic researchers and volunteers on the project and from the in-country Oxfam offices in both Port Vila and Honiara. Without their assistance I could not have organised the field work. I also want to thank the research teams who toiled in the field and tolerated a big-bearded Australian researcher with a vision.
The teams did a spectacular job in assisting me collect the empirical data. This truly is a remarkable one-of-a- kind data set and without their assistance it could not have happened. I would also like to acknowledge the financial support of AusAID. The twelve communities surveyed were also incredibly gracious in their hospitality and willingness to participate in this research.
I sincerely hope that the outputs of this research can improve the lives of these people and their compatriots. Importantly, I want to thank my supervisors, Associate Professor Simon Feeny and Dr Alberto Posso. I’ve enjoyed working together, travelling together and getting to know both of you better. You have also helped me deepen and broaden my knowledge of economics.
Your guidance over the journey has been enormous. Thanks also to my parents, who have been ever-supportive throughout my studies. Finally, and most sincerely, I want to thank my wonderful partner, Emma Peppler. You have been a pillar of support throughout this journey.
You’ve been instrumental in almost every facet of the project, from helping with the initial survey design, to being directly involved in numerous field trips and, ultimately, casting your legal-eagle eye over the finished product. Thanks for always being there when I’ve needed someone to talk to and thanks for putting up with me when I’ve been much less communicative. This truly would not have been the same project without you. Lachlan McDonald iv PUBLICATIONS AND AWARDS ORIGINATING FROM THE PRESENT THESIS Authored book chapters: • McDonald, L.
“Coconut trees in a cyclone: vulnerability and resilience in a Melanesian context”, in S.) (2014), Household Vulnerability and Resilience to Economic Shocks: Evidence from Melanesia, Ashgate: London • McDonald, L. Mohanty, “Vulnerability, resilience and dynamism of the customary economy in Melanesia”, in S.) (2014), Household Vulnerability and Resilience to Economic Shocks: Evidence from Melanesia, Ashgate: London • Clarke, M. McDonald, “Vulnerability to what? Multidimensional poverty in Melanesia”, in S.) (2014), Household Vulnerability and Resilience to Economic Shocks: Evidence from Melanesia, Ashgate: London. Conference Papers: • McDonald, L.
(2013) “Household Vulnerability to Poverty in Vanuatu and the Solomon Islands”, paper presented at the 9th Australasian Development Economics Workshop (ADEW), Australian National University, Canberra, June 2013. McDonald (2013) “Multidimensional Poverty and Vulnerability in the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu”, paper presented at the Oceania Development Network (ODN) Conference on Addressing Inequality and Promoting Inclusive and Sustainable Development, University of the South Pacific, September, Suva, Fiji. Working Papers: • Feeny, S. Posso (2013) “Household Vulnerability and Resilience to Shocks: Findings from the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu', SSGM Discussion Paper 2013/2.
ANU College of Asia & the Pacific, School of International, Political and Strategic Studies, State, Society and Governance in Melanesia Program. McDonald (2013) “Household Vulnerability and Resilience to Economic Shocks: Findings from the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu”, Oxfam Australia, Melbourne. Prizes: • 2013 Best Conference Paper by an HDR Candidate Award, School of Economics Finance and Marketing, RMIT University. v vi TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION.
iv PUBLICATIONS AND AWARDS ORIGINATING FROM THE PRESENT THESIS .v TABLE OF CONTENTS. vii LIST OF FIGURES. xii LIST OF TABLES. xiii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .1 CHAPTER I – INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW.
Vulnerability as a lens. Vulnerability in development economics. The essentiality of resilience. Vanuatu and Solomon Islands – an overview.
The unique vulnerabilities of Vanuatu and Solomon Islands. The effects of recent global macroeconomic shocks. The vulnerability and resilience of households in Vanuatu and Solomon Islands. An outline of this thesis .26 CHAPTER II – DATA AND METHODOLOGY.
Other sources of data. Field work and sampling methodology. Details of the communities surveyed. Communities in Vanuatu.
Communities in Solomon Islands .40 vii CHAPTER III - MULTIDIMENSIONAL POVERTY IN VANUATU AND SOLOMON ISLANDS. Poverty measures and their applicability to PICs. Alternative measures of poverty in the Pacific context – the role for multidimensional poverty analyses. Alternative approaches to poverty measurement: the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI).
Multidimensional Poverty Indices for households in Vanuatu and Solomon Islands. Calculating a “Melanesian” MPI (MMPI). Analysis of the Multidimensional Poverty Indices in Vanuatu and Solomon Islands. The Melanesian Multidimensional Poverty Index (MMPI).
Multidimensional poverty and vulnerability .78 CHAPTER IV – THE EXPOSURE OF HOUSEHOLDS TO ECONOMIC AND OTHER SHOCKS IN VANUATU AND SOLOMON ISLANDS. Risk, shocks and vulnerability. The transmission of global macroeconomic shocks to households in Vanuatu and Solomon Islands. The role of the dual economy and traditional economic systems.
The role of urbanisation and monetisation. Data and methodology. Cataloguing shock experience. Shock experience by individual communities.
Non-price shocks. Number of shocks experienced. Shock experience and well-being: dealing with endogeneity. A model of household shock experience.
Determinants of exposure to shocks .118 CHAPTER V – RESILIENCE IN VANUATU AND SOLOMON ISLANDS: HOUSEHOLDS’ RESPONSES TO GLOBAL MACROECONOMIC SHOCKS. The importance of focusing on household responses to shocks. Households’ risk management in Vanuatu and Solomon Islands. The dominant coping mechanisms of households in Vanuatu and Solomon Islands to recent global macroeconomic shocks.
Use environmental resources (direct production of consumption goods). Increase labour supply. Adjust expenditure patterns. Use of informal social networks.
Use of livestock. The vulnerability and resilience of households to the effects of recent global macroeconomic shocks. An ex-post assessment of household vulnerability. A test of the effectiveness of household coping responses in providing resilience to recent global macroeconomic shocks .160 CHAPTER VI – HOUSEHOLD VULNERABILITY TO POVERTY IN VANUATU AND SOLOMON ISLANDS.
A model of household well-being. A profile of household vulnerability in Vanuatu and Solomon Islands. Aggregate vulnerability and MPI-poverty. Vulnerability and MPI-poverty by individual communities.
Incorporating risk preferences: the depth of expected poverty. Vulnerability to poverty using the MMPI .201 CHAPTER VII – CONCLUSION AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS. Summary of findings. How should poverty be defined and measured in Vanuatu and Solomon Islands?.
Which households are most vulnerable to experiencing economic and other shocks?. What are the dominant coping mechanisms households in Vanuatu and Solomon Islands use to deal with global macroeconomic shocks and how resilient are they to such shocks?. Which households in Vanuatu and Solomon Islands are vulnerable to experiencing poverty in the future?. Comparing household vulnerability and resilience in Vanuatu and Solomon Islands.
Increase resilience to price shocks by reducing households’ dependence on imported food and fuel. Strengthen access to land and gardens in urban areas. Experiment with formal social protection schemes. Encourage rural economic development through improved access to markets.
Improve access to a quality education. Greater financial inclusion. Limitations of the study. Areas for further research .261 xi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Map of the South West Pacific Ocean .2: GNI per capita Vanuatu and Solomon Islands .3: International food and fuel prices and global output .4: Inflation in Vanuatu and Solomon Islands .5: GDP per capita in Vanuatu and Solomon Islands .1: Research fieldwork locations .1: Headcount multidimensional poverty .2: Multidimensional poverty indices .3: Dimensions of multidimensional poverty .4: Dimensions of multidimensional poverty .5: Intensity of multidimensional poverty .1: Households’ experience of real food and real fuel price shocks .2: Reliance on environmental and market-based systems for food .3: Employment types by location in Vanuatu and Solomon Islands .4: Gardens and crop failure shocks in urban communities .5: Experience of positive shocks .6: Number of adverse shocks experienced by households .1: Gardens in urban communities and coping with shocks .2: Bank account ownership and coping with shocks .3: Self-reported change in household disposable income in the past two years .4: Self-reported falls in disposable income in the past two years .5: Self-reported food insecurity .1: Vulnerability and expected weighted sum of deprivations in Vanuatu and Solomon Islands .2: Estimated incidence of vulnerability at various vulnerability thresholds .3: Vulnerability to MPI poverty and MPI poverty headcounts .4: Vulnerability to MMPI poverty and MMPI poverty headcounts .198 xii LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1: The multiple lenses of vulnerability .2: Vanuatu and Solomon Islands .1: Communities surveyed and their characteristics .2: Sampling distribution by community .1: Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) .2: Melanesian Multidimensional Poverty Index (MMPI) .3: Multidimensional Poverty Indices .4: Headcount poverty rates .5: MMPI poverty vs.1: Examples of shocks by categories .3: Primary shock experiences of households in Vanuatu and Solomon Islands .4: Shock experience and well-being .5: Details of variables used in the model of households’ shock experience .6: Probit estimations – selected shocks; total sample; marginal effects .1: Informal mechanisms for managing the impact of shocks .2: Dominant household coping responses to recent global macroeconomic shocks in Vanuatu and Solomon Islands .3: Results from a model of household well-being during recent global macroeconomic shocks .4: Effectiveness of households’ dominant coping mechanisms in providing resilience from recent global macroeconomic shocks .1: Economic approaches to estimating household vulnerability .2: Model of the estimation of vulnerability to MPI poverty .3: Goodness of fit: predicted versus actual MPI deprivations .4: Vulnerability and poverty groupings .5: Vulnerability to MPI poverty and observed headcount MPI poverty .6: Vulnerability and MPI poverty.7: Depth of expected MPI poverty .8: Vulnerability to MMPI poverty and observed headcount MMPI poverty .