Communication Between CULTURES EIGHTH EDITION Larry A. Samovar San Diego State University, Emeritus Richard E. Porter California State University, Long Beach, Emeritus Edwin R. McDaniel California State University, San Marcos Assisted By: Carolyn S.
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Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 15 14 13 12 11 Brief Contents Preface xvii CHAPTER 1 Intercultural Communication: Interaction in a Multicultural World 1 CHAPTER 2 Communication and Culture: The Voice and the Echo 27 CHAPTER 3 The Deep Structure of Culture: Lessons from the Family 59 CHAPTER 4 Cultural History: Our Antecedents 90 CHAPTER 5 Worldview: Cultural Explanations of Life and Death 120 CHAPTER 6 Cultural Values: Guidelines for Behavior 172 CHAPTER 7 Culture and Identity: Situating the Individual 213 CHAPTER 8 Verbal Messages: Exchanging Ideas Through Language 244 CHAPTER 9 Nonverbal Communication: The Messages of Action, Space, Time, and Silence 266 CHAPTER 10 Cultural Influences on Communication Contexts: Responding to the Setting 308 Notes 360 Index 396 iii Contents Preface xvii CHAPTER 1 Intercultural Communication: Interaction in a Multicultural World 1 THE GLOBAL COMMUNITY 2 GROWING DOMESTIC DIVERSITY 4 U. IMMIGRATION 5 TECHNOLOGY 6 DEFINING THE CONCEPTS 8 Intercultural Communication 8 The Dominant Culture 8 Co-Cultures 9 Society 9 VENTURING INTO A NEW CULTURE 10 Reactions to Culture Shock 10 The Phases of Culture Shock 11 Beyond Culture Shock 12 Learn about the Language of the Host Culture 13 Guard against Ethnocentrism 13 Learn about the Host Culture 13 Work to Maintain Your Culture 13 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 14 Fundamentalism 15 Relativism 15 ETHICS IN INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION 16 Be Mindful That Communication Produces a Response 16 Show Respect for Others 17 Search for Commonalities among People and Cultures 17 Respect Cultural Differences 19 Accept Responsibility for Your Behavior 19 iv Contents v STUDYING INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION 20 Individual Uniqueness 20 Generalizing 21 Objectivity 23 PREVIEW OF THE BOOK 24 Summary 25 Activities 25 Concepts and Questions 26 CHAPTER 2 Communication and Culture: The Voice and the Echo 27 HUMAN COMMUNICATION 27 THE USES OF COMMUNICATION 28 Communication and Identity 28 Communication and Person Perception 28 Communication and Interpersonal Needs 28 Communication and Persuasion 28 DEFINING COMMUNICATION 29 THE COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION 30 Source 30 Encoding 30 Messages 30 Channel 31 Receiver 31 Decoding 31 Feedback 31 Noise 31 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICATION 32 Communication Is a Dynamic Process 32 Communication Is Symbolic 33 Communication Is Contextual 33 Location 34 Occasion 34 Time 34 Number of Participants 35 Most Communication Behavior Is Learned 35 Communication Has a Consequence 35 CULTURE 36 Culture Is Shared 37 vi Contents Culture Defined 38 The Functions of Culture 39 The Elements of Culture 39 Religion 40 History 40 Values 41 Social Organizations 42 Language 42 Characteristics of Culture 43 Culture Is Learned 43 Culture Is Transmitted from Generation to Generation 52 Culture Is Based on Symbols 53 Culture Is Dynamic 54 Culture Is an Integrated System 56 Summary 57 Activities 57 Concepts and Questions 57 CHAPTER 3 The Deep Structure of Culture: Lessons from the Family 59 THE DEEP STRUCTURE OF CULTURE 60 Deep Structure Institutions Carry Culture’s Most Important Messages 61 Deep Structure Institutions and Their Messages Endure 62 Deep Structure Institutions and Their Messages are Deeply Felt 62 Deep Structure Institutions Supply Much of a Person’s Identity 62 FAMILY 63 The Importance of Family 64 Definition of Family 64 Forms of Family 65 Nuclear Families 65 Extended Families 65 Transforming Families in the United States 66 Globalization and Families 67 Mass Media 68 Migration 68 Functions of the Family 69 Reproductive Function 69 Economic Function 70 Socialization Function 70 Identity Function 70 COMMUNICATION, CULTURE, AND FAMILY 71 Contents vii CULTURAL VARIANTS IN FAMILY INTERACTION 72 Gender Roles 72 United States 73 Asian 73 Latino 74 Indian 75 The Muslim Community 76 Changing Gender Roles 77 Individualism and Collectivism 79 Individualism and the Family 79 Collectivism and the Family 80 The Elderly 83 Social Skills 86 Aggression 87 Decision Making 88 Summary 88 Activities 89 Concepts and Questions 89 CHAPTER 4 Cultural History: Our Antecedents 90 THE IMPORTANCE OF HISTORY 90 United States History 92 Contemporary Social Issues 95 Russian History 96 Contemporary Social Issues 98 Chinese History 99 Communicating History 101 Contemporary Social Issues 101 Japanese History 102 Contemporary Social Issues 105 Indian History 105 Contemporary Social Issues 108 Mexican History 109 Contemporary Social Issues 112 Islamic Civilization 113 Muslim Demographics 113 The Age of Ignorance 113 The Rise and Spread of Islam 114 Legacy of History 117 Contemporary Social Issues 118 Summary 118 Activities 119 Concepts and Questions 119 viii Contents CHAPTER 5 Worldview: Cultural Explanations of Life and Death 120 WORLDVIEW 120 Worldview and Culture 121 Manifestations of Worldview 121 Constructs of Worldviews 123 Religion as a Worldview 123 Secularism as a Worldview 124 Spirituality as a Worldview 125 RELIGION 126 Religion and the Sacred 126 Religion and Personal Conduct 127 The Study of Religion in the Twenty-First Century 128 Globalization and Religion 128 Conflict and Religion 129 Selecting Worldviews for Study 129 The Elements of Religion 130 Speculation 130 Sacred Writings 130 Religious Rituals 131 Ethics 133 Christianity 134 Core Assumptions 135 Cultural Expressions of Christianity 135 Christian Notions about Death 138 Judaism 139 Core Assumptions 140 Branches of Judaism 140 Cultural Expressions of Judaism 141 Jewish Notions about Death 143 Islam 144 Origins 144 Core Assumptions 145 Judgment 147 Five Pillars of Islam 147 Cultural Expressions of Islam 149 Gender 151 Islamic Notions about Death 152 Hinduism 153 Origins 153 Sacred Texts 153 Core Assumptions 154 Contents ix Cultural Expressions of Hinduism 156 Notions about Death 158 Buddhism 159 Origins 159 Core Assumptions 160 Cultural Expressions of Buddhism 163 Buddhist Notions about Death 165 Confucianism 166 Confucius the Man 166 Core Assumptions 167 The Analects 167 Cultural Expressions of Confucianism 168 Confucianism and Communication 168 Confucian Notions about Death 169 RELIGION AND WORLDVIEW: A FINAL THOUGHT 170 Summary 170 Activities 171 Concepts and Questions 171 CHAPTER 6 Cultural Values: Guidelines for Behavior 172 UNDERSTANDING PERCEPTION 173 UNDERSTANDING VALUES 174 Cultural Patterns 175 Selecting Cultural Patterns 176 KOHLS’ “THE VALUES AMERICANS LIVE BY” 177 Personal Control Over the Environment 178 Change 178 Time and Its Control 178 Equality/Egalitarianism 179 Individuality and Privacy 180 Self-Help Control 181 Competition and Free Enterprise 181 Future Orientation 182 Action/Work Orientation 182 Informality 182 Directness, Openness, and Honesty 183 Practicality and Efficiency 183 Materialism/Acquisitiveness 183 OTHER CULTURAL PATTERNS 184 x Contents HOFSTEDE’S VALUE DIMENSIONS 184 Individualism/Collectivism 184 Individualism 185 Collectivism 186 Uncertanity Avoidance 187 High Uncertainty Avoidance 187 Low Uncertainty Avoidance 187 Power Distance 188 High Power Distance 189 Low Power Distance 189 Masculinity/Femininity 190 Masculinity 190 Femininity 190 Long- and Short-Term Orientation 191 Indulgence/Restraint 192 MINKOV’S MONUMENTALISM/FLEXHUMILITY 194 KLUCKHOHN AND STRODTBECK’S VALUE ORIENTATIONS 194 Human Nature Orientation 195 Evil 195 Good and Evil 196 Good 196 Person/Nature Orientation 196 Humans Subject to Nature 196 Harmony with Nature 197 Master of Nature 197 Time Orientation 198 Past Orientation 198 Present Orientation 198 Future Orientation 199 Activity Orientation 199 Being 199 Being-in-Becoming 200 Doing 200 HALL’S HIGH-CONTEXT AND LOW-CONTEXT ORIENTATIONS 201 High-Context 201 Low-Context 202 THE GLOBE STUDY 203 Globe Study Cultural Dimensions 203 Globe Societies and Geographical Groups 204 FACE AND FACEWORK 208 Contents xi CULTURAL PATTERNS AND COMMUNICATION 209 Summary 211 Activities 212 Concepts and Questions 212 CHAPTER 7 Culture and Identity: Situating the Individual 213 THE ROLE OF IDENTITY 214 DEFINING IDENTITY 215 EXAMPLES OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 217 Racial Identity 217 Ethnic Identity 218 Gender Identity 219 National Identity 220 Regional Identity 221 Organizational Identity 222 Personal Identity 222 Cyber and Fantasy Identity 223 ACQUIRING AND DEVELOPING IDENTITIES 224 ESTABLISHING AND ENACTING CULTURAL IDENTITY 226 IDENTITY IN INTERCULTURAL INTERACTIONS 228 IDENTITY IN A GLOBALIZED SOCIETY 229 THE DARK SIDE OF IDENTITY 231 STEREOTYPING 231 Stereotypes Defined 231 Learning Stereotypes 232 Stereotypes and Intercultural Communication 232 Avoiding Stereotypes 233 PREJUDICE 234 Functions of Prejudice 234 Expressions of Prejudice 235 Causes of Prejudice 236 Avoiding Prejudice 236 RACISM 237 Racism Defined 238 xii Contents Expressions of Racism 238 Avoiding Racism 239 ETHNOCENTRISM 239 Characteristics of Ethnocentrism 240 Levels of Ethnocentrism 240 Ethnocentrism Is Universal 240 Ethnocentrism Contributes to Cultural Identity 241 Avoiding Ethnocentrism 241 Summary 242 Activities 243 Concepts and Questions 243 CHAPTER 8 Verbal Messages: Exchanging Ideas Through Language 244 FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE 245 Social Interaction 246 Social Cohesion 246 Expressions of Identity 246 LANGUAGE AND MEANING 247 What Is Language?