Accountants’ acceptance of a cashless monetary system using an implantable chip Antony Michael Young Bachelor of Business (Accounting), Swinburne Institute of Technology Post Graduate Diploma of Education, Latrobe University Master of Accounting, University of New England A thesis submitted to RMIT University for the fulfilment of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD.) July 2007 Acknowledgements Firstly I want to give a special thanks to my loving wife Ann for her sacrifices during the duration of my PhD and her support, especially her interest in the issues of the thesis. I also want to thank my children, Jacinta, Kurtis and Chontelle who never complained when I worked on the thesis rather than played with them. I want to acknowledge my appreciation to my Father and Mother for the loving way they supported my intellectual inquiry as I grew. Academically I want to thank Professor Robert Clift for the support he showed me in the development of this thesis.
His direction and support was fundamental in its development. I also want to thank my second supervisor Doctor David Gowland for his valuable contributions, support and patience. A special note of thanks to Professor Clive Morley who generously devoted time and effort to provide guidance on the statistical interpretations contained within this PhD. i Abstract A logical control extension surrounding cashless means of exchange is a permanent personal verification mark.
An implanted micro chip such as ones that have been successfully implanted into humans could identify and store information. Connected with global positioning satellites and a computer system, a cashless monetary system could be formed in the future. The system would provide complete and continual real time records for individuals, businesses and regulators. It would be possible for all trading to occur in this way in the future.
A modified Technology Acceptance Model was developed based on Davis’ (1989) model and Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) theory to test the acceptance level of the new monetary system by professional accountants in Australia. The model includes perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, perceived risk, and a subjective norm component. 523 accountants were surveyed in December 2003 with a response rate of 27%. 13% either strongly agreed or agreed that they would accept the implantable chip.
The analysis showed that Perception of Risk, Subjective Norm and Perception of Usefulness were all significant in explaining the dependent variable at the 95% confidence level for all responses. The Perception of Ease of Use was not proved to be significant. In consideration of response bias, it was found that with respect to the perception of usefulness at the 0.01 level, two elements were not significant, those being “not having cards” and “having medical information”. The difference here was not seen as fundamental for the credibility of the research given the main theme of the research is a monetary system based on the “mark” rather than the convenience factors of the two elements where there were differences.
The perceived risk variable was not significant for early responders. The responses were also used to analyse the Technology Acceptance Model developed by Davis (1989). The model had a significance of 0.327 ii compared to 0.000 giving validation to the contributions of the modified Technology Acceptance Model. Davis’ (1989) model found Perception of Ease of Use was significant at the 95% confidence level and Perception of Usefulness was not proven to be significant.
In further analyzing the developed model, each of the elements in the model used as independent variables were separately regressed against contributions established in open questions relating to them. Subjective norm had a regression R-squared of 0.403 and of the thirty-four explanatory variables the only significant contribution, at the 95% confidence level was “clients”. Significant at the 10% level, were religion, public figures and friends. The professional bodies variable was not significant in determining the subjective norm.
Perceived Ease of Use and the nine explanatory variables had an R-squared of 0. There were only two significant contributions for ease of use, at the 95% confidence level being “privacy” and “technology”. Perceived Usefulness and the eleven explanatory variables had an R-squared of 0. There were only two significant contributions for usefulness, at the 95% confidence level being “privacy” and “easy”.
Perceived Risk and the eleven explanatory variables had an R-squared of 0.054 and no significant contributions. iii Declaration Except where reference is made in the text, this thesis contains no material published elsewhere or extracted in whole or in part from this thesis presented by me for another degree or diploma. No other person’s work has been used without acknowledgment in the main text of this thesis. This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma in any other tertiary institution.
Antony Young iv TABLE OF CONTENT ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.IV CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .2 Cashless monetary systems explained.3 Factors driving a cashless monetary system.1 Perceived need to reduce fraud.2 Current availability of technology .2 MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY.3 THE DEVELOPMENT OF CASHLESS MEDIUMS OF EXCHANGE .3 Legal aspects of money.4 PROBLEMS OF CASHLESS MEDIUMS OF EXCHANGE .6 BENEFITS OF A VERIFICATION MARK .7 HAZARDS OF A VERIFICATION MARK.10 METHOD OF THESIS .11 STRUCTURE OF THESIS. 33 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW OF MEDIUMS OF EXCHANGE .2 ACCOUNTING’S ROLE IN SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT .3 PROLIFERATION OF CASHLESS MEDIUMS OF EXCHANGE .4 ADVANTAGES OF CASHLESS MEDIUMS OF EXCHANGE .5 DISADVANTAGES OF CASHLESS MEDIUMS OF EXCHANGE .1 Cashless mediums of exchange’s propensity to magnify an authority’s control.2 Privacy issues arising from cashless mediums of exchanges .1 Technical protection of information.2 Formal protection of information .6 METHOD OF IDENTIFICATION .1 Identification has become a national issue .2 Identification is a global issue.3 Types of identification solutions .6 Radio Frequency Identification .7 MICROCHIPS USED AS HUMAN IDENTIFICATION.9 REAL-TIME UP-DATE .10 BENEFITS OF A VERIFICATION MARK .11 PROBLEMS WITH IMPLANTED CHIPS.1 Propensity to magnify an authority’s control. 96 CHAPTER THREE: REVIEW OF TECHNOLOGY ACCEPTANCE THEORY.2 A Mix of Diffusion theory and Acceptance theory.3 THEORY OF REASONED ACTION .4 THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOUR .5 TECHNOLOGY ACCEPTANCE MODEL .6 MODIFIED TECHNOLOGY ACCEPTANCE MODEL. 112 CHAPTER FOUR: DESCRIPTION OF THE VARIABLES.1 PERCEIVED EASE OF USE .1 Potential for social control .4 NORMATIVE BELIEFS AND MOTIVATION TO COMPLY .1 Statement of introduction.
127 CHAPTER FIVE: METHODOLOGY AND QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN .1 Selection of database.2 Survey numbers selected using CPA Australia and ICA demographics.1 CPA Australia member selection.2 Institute of Chartered Accountant’s selection.1 Test of consistency.3 Arrangement of questionnaire structure.4 Perceived ease of use.1 Potential for social control.7 Normative beliefs and motivation to comply.3 ADMINISTRATION OF THE SURVEY .1 Survey response rate. 164 CHAPTER SIX: REPORTING AND ANALYSIS OF RESPONSES .1 ACCEPTANCE OF THE “MARK” .1 Acceptance of the “mark” if it was compulsory .2 Acceptance of the “mark” by groups .1 Professional membership and gender of respondents .2 Age of respondents.3 Job position of respondents.4 Salary of respondents .5 Field of work of respondents.6 Numbers of years in the profession of the respondents.7 Descriptive information summary .3 EASE OF USE .1 Ease of physical registration of the “mark” .2 Ease of administratively registering the “mark” .3 Ease of access to information using the “mark” .4 Ease of using the “mark” to buy and sell .5 Ease of using the “mark” for payment over the phone or computer .6 Ease of using the “mark” to create company records .1 Usefulness of packages using the information created by the “mark”.2 Usefulness of taxation information created by the “mark” .3 Usefulness of not needing cards because of the “mark”.4 Usefulness of not having to carry medical and other information because of the “mark” .5 RISK OF THE “MARK” .1 Risk of social control due to the “mark”.2 Risk of government control due to the “mark”.3 Risk of bank control due to the “mark” .4 Risk of private organisation control due to the “mark” .5 Legislative protection against risks that may occur because of the “mark” .6 Constitutional protection against risks that may occur because of the “mark”.7 Risk of privacy loss due to companies receiving additional information because of the “mark” .8 Risk of abuse from companies due to the “mark”.9 Risk of fraud reduced due to having the “mark” .10 Risk of theft reduced because of the “mark”.11 Risk of the “mark” reduced because of software encryption.12 Risk of temporary corruption because of the “mark”.13 Risk of permanent corruption because of the “mark”.14 Risk of health issues because of the “mark” .1 Perception regarding the risk of the “mark” offending respondents’ religious beliefs .2 Risk of the “mark” offending community groups .3 Perception regarding the risk of the “mark” offending respondents family views ……………………………………………………………………………………………195 6.7 AVAILABILITY OF TECHNOLOGY .1 Availability of the implantable chip (mark) technology .2 Availability of technology surrounding the “mark”.3 Availability of combined technology .8 VALIDITY OF RESEARCH .1 Multinominal logits modelling testing for late response bias.1 Response timing consideration .12 TECHNOLOGY ACCEPTANCE MODEL .13 SUBJECTIVE NORM – OPEN QUESTIONS .14 PERCEIVED EASE OF USE – OPEN QUESTIONS .2 Attitudinal rejection issues .15 PERCEIVED USEFULNESS – OPEN QUESTIONS .16 PERCEIVED RISK (CONTROL) – OPEN QUESTIONS.6 Physical safety issues.17 PERCEIVED RISKS (OTHER) – OPEN QUESTIONS .18 FACTORS AFFECTING ACCEPTANCE – OPEN QUESTIONS. 241 CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSION.1 Professional affiliation of respondents 1.2 Gender of respondents 1.3 Age of respondents 1.4 Years in the profession of the respondents 1.5 Salary of the respondents 1.6 Position of the respondents 1.7 Field of work of the respondents 1.8 Perception of the respondents regarding the ease of the physical registration process 1.9 Perception of the respondents regarding the ease of the administration of registering of the “mark” 1.10 Perception of the respondents regarding the ease of access to information using the “mark” 1.11 Perception of the respondents regarding the ease of using the “mark” to buy and sell 1.12 Perception of the respondents regarding the ease of using the “mark” for payments over the phone or on the computer 1.13 Perception of the respondents regarding the ease of using the “mark” to create company records 1.14 Perception of the respondents regarding the usefulness of packages using the information created by the “mark” 1.15 Perception of the respondents regarding the usefulness of taxation information created by the “mark” 1.16 Perception of the respondents regarding the usefulness of not needing cards because of the “mark” 1.17 Perception of the respondents regarding the usefulness of having medical and other information on the “mark” 1.18 Perception of the respondents regarding the risk of government social control due to the “mark” 1.19 Perception of the respondents regarding the risk of government control via affiliations due to the “mark xi 1.20 Perception of the respondents regarding the risk of bank control due to the “mark” 1.21 Perception of respondents regarding the risk of private organisation control due to the “mark” 1.22 Perception of the respondents regarding the risk protection regarding the “mark” afforded by legislation 1.23 Perception of the respondents regarding the risk protection provided by constitution regarding the “mark” 1.24 Perception of the respondents regarding the risk of lost privacy due to companies receiving additional information because of the “mark” 1.25 Perception of respondents regarding the risk of abuse from companies due to the “mark” 1.26 Perception of respondents regarding the risk of fraud reduced 1.27 Perception of respondents regarding the risk of theft reduced 1.28 Perception of respondents regarding the risks reduced by software encryption 1.29 Perception of respondents regarding the risks of temporary corruption 1.30 Perception of respondents regarding the risks of permanent corruption 1.31 Perception of respondents regarding the risks of health issues 1.32 Perception of respondents regarding the risks of offending religious groups 1.33 Perception of respondents regarding the risks of offending community groups 1.34 Perception of respondents regarding the risks of conflicting with family views 1.35 Respondents perceptions regarding whether groups find using the “mark” easy to use 1.36 Respondents perceptions regarding whether groups find the “mark” useful 1.37 Respondents perceptions regarding whether groups find the “mark” xii risky 1.