UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS ERASMUS UNVERSITY ROTTERDAM HO CHI MINH CITY INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL STUDIES VIETNAM THE NETHERLANDS VIETNAM – THE NETHERLANDS PROGRAMME FOR M.A IN DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS THE LINKAGE BETWEEN CORRUPTION AND CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSION: EVIDENCE FROM ASIAN COUNTRIES BY NGUYEN THAI DUONG MASTER OF ARTS IN DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS HO CHI MINH CITY, NOVEMBER 2016 123doc UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL STUDIES HO CHI MINH CITY THE HAGUE VIETNAM THE NETHERLANDS VIETNAM - NETHERLANDS PROGRAMME FOR M.A IN DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS THE LINKAGE BETWEEN CORRUPTION AND CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSION: EVIDENCE FROM ASIAN COUNTRIES A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS IN DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS By NGUYEN THAI DUONG Academic Supervisor: DR. PHAM KHANH NAM HO CHI MINH CITY, NOVEMBER 2016 123doc TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .3 LIST OF FIGURES. The corruption – growth relationship review. The growth – environment relationship review.
The corruption – environment relationship review. Model specification and estimation method. Data and variables. Suggestion for further researches .55 123doc ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor Dr.
Pham Khanh Nam for his continuous and solid support during my thesis writing process. Several insightful comments based on his immense knowledge helped me to solve all my problems regarding to this thesis. Besides my advisor, I would like to thank Dr. Truong Dang Thuy for his useful advice on my methodology.
My special thanks also go to my colleagues who always create opportunities and arrange everything for me so that I could have adequate time to pursue my thesis. Finally, I would like to send my love to my family and my close friends for always being beside me, spiritually encouraging me and letting me know that no matter what has happened I am not alone. 1|Page 123doc ABSTRACT This research investigates the direct and indirect effects of corruption which measured by corruption perception index on carbon dioxide emissions. Using data from 42 Asian countries and applying three-stage least squares (3SLS) method with considering corruption as endogenous variable, the finding indicates both effects are positive implying that countries should reduce their corruption levels to lower poison gas emission.
Although these effects are not clear when we control for fixed effects using countries dummies, these are significant when we use Asian sub- regions dummy instead. In addition, we also find that capital per worker and human capital possess positive relationships with economic growth while the share of export and import in GDP positively affects carbon dioxide emission. Keywords: Corruption, economic growth, environment, carbon dioxide, Asian countries, three-stage least squares, endogeneity. 2|Page 123doc ABBREVIATIONS 2SLS Two-stage least squares 3SLS Three-stage least squares CO2 Carbon dioxide CPI Corruption Perception Index EDGAR Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research EKC Environmental Kuznets Curve GDP Gross domestic product GFK Gross Fixed Capital Formation RF Radiative forcing 3|Page 123doc LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Carbon dioxide levels since 400,000 years ago .1: Environmental Kuznets Curve .2: Major Greenhouse Gases from People's Activities .1: A combination of three scatter plots show the correlations between our main variables, namely corruption – carbon dioxide – emission, corruption – income per capita and income per capita – carbon dioxide emission.34 4|Page 123doc LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1: Name of sub-regions and countries in the sample .2: Skewness and kurtosis value before and after taking natural logarithms 31 Table 4.4: Three-stage least squares regression (pooled regression) .5: Three-stage least squares regression with fixed effects of sub-regions and time .6: The impact of corruption on pollution .7: Three-stage least squares regression with fixed effects of countries and time .8: Results of all three above regressions .44 5|Page 123doc CHAPTER 1.
Problem Statement Climate change is one of the most important issues facing the world today. Many serious observable influences on the environment due to global climate change have been seen: continuous rise in temperatures, stronger and more intense hurricanes, more droughts and heat waves, loss of sea ice, accelerated rise in sea level, etc. Climate change is mainly caused by the emission of heat-trapping gases or greenhouse gases. There are many sorts of greenhouse gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), per fluorocarbons (PFCs) or sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), but carbon dioxide which has accumulated without being any less strong in the atmosphere places us at the highest risk of serious ecological problems.
This is attributed to two key reasons. First, among heat-trapping gases, CO2 has the highest positive “Radiative Forcing” (RF)1. Although, CO2 molecule has less heat-trapping ability than other gases’ molecule, the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere is the most abundant and is emitted into the air with the highest speed owing to daily human activities. Second, the time that CO2 existing before totally leaving from the atmosphere is much longer than most of other greenhouse gases.
While methane takes about 10 years to decay and nitrous oxide takes a century, CO2 takes approximately 50-200 years to leave from the atmosphere. Facing with this severe problem, many worldwide conferences have taken place aiming to discuss how to diminish greenhouse gases release, especially carbon dioxide release. Typically, Kyoto Protocol, which was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11th December 1997, is a commitment of countries around the world to limit the greenhouse gases emission within the allowable levels. After several rounds of 1 “Radiative Forcing” (RF) which is defined as the difference in the energy of the incoming solar radiation absorbed by the Earth and the energy of outgoing radiation is the factor affecting the temperature of the Earth’s surface.
The surface could be warmer if the RF gets positive value and cooler if the RF gets the negative one. 6|Page 123doc discussion and amendment (e. Marrakesh, Morocco, in 2001; Doha, Qatar, in 2012), this protocol officially became effective on 16th February 2005.1: Carbon dioxide levels since 400,000 years ago (Credit: Vostok ice core data/J. Petit et al.; NOAA Mauna Loa CO2 record.) Besides practical activities in the endeavor to reduce CO2 emission all over the world, many researches have been implemented to figure out the determinants of environment pollution in general and air pollution in particular.
One of these important factors attracting researchers’ attentions is corruption. “Corruption involves behavior on the part of officials in the public sector, whether politicians or civil servants, in which they improperly and unlawfully enrich themselves, or those close to them, by the misuse of the power entrusted to them” (Transparency International, 2000). The previous literature suggests that corruption can affect environment not only directly but also indirectly. On the one hand, the environmental laws enforcement might be less effective under corruption, which results in higher pollution (see Hafner, 1998; Lippe, 1999).
On the other hand, corruption might indirectly affect pollution through income transmission channel. There is evidence that corruption could have harmful effects on the economic growth (Mauro, 1995; Hall and Jones, 1999). Then, pollution might reduce at some 7|Page 123doc high income levels and increase at some lower ones (EKC theories). Hence, the ambiguous total effect including two partial effects (direct and indirect) should be examined to find out whether corruption has positive or negative impact on the environment.
Asia, of which the population was approximately 4,299 million people in 2013 (about 60% of the whole world population, UN DESA Population Division, 2013), is the largest continent. Asia also consists of the most polluted and corrupt countries all over the world. Using data from 42 Asian countries, we examine the relationship between corruption expressed by corruption perception index (CPI) and carbon dioxide emission employing three-stage least squares method. Our model contains two equations and was first built by Welsch (2004) then developed by Cole et al.
From the obtained results, this research will contribute to the corruption – carbon dioxide emission relationship and provide some policy implications for countries, especially developing countries like Vietnam. Research Objectives (i) Firstly, we explore how corruption directly affects greenhouse gases emission at given levels of income. This will answer for the question: “How does corruption directly (by itself) influence CO2 emission?” (ii) Secondly, we investigate how corruption affects economic growth (income per capita) and then how economic growth in turn influences CO2 emission. This will answer for our second question: “How does corruption indirectly (via income per capita channel) impact CO2 emission?” (iii) Finally, the direct effect and indirect effect will be added together to find the total effect.
Thesis Structure The remainder of the thesis is organized as following chapters. Chapter 2 reviews the previous literature on three main relationships: corruption and economic growth, growth and environment, corruption and environment. Chapter 3 mentions the analytical framework, data used, and estimation method employed. This chapter also explains in detail our variables.
Chapter 4 describes the data and presents our results while Chapter 5 provides conclusion, policy implications, suggestion for further researches, and also some limitations of the thesis. 9|Page 123doc CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Since this paper examines the corruption and greenhouse gases emission relation considering both direct and indirect effect (via corruption’s influence on income), this chapter will review previous studies examining the corruption – growth, the growth – environment and the corruption – environment relationships respectively. The corruption – growth relationship review The theoretical behind the linkage between corruption and economic growth are various.
In general, there have been two main views that corruption might benefit the economy and corruption could have prejudicial impact on economic performance. The argument always used to support for the former view is its ability to avoid burdensome bureaucratic regulations and to “grease the wheels of bureaucracy” (Leff, 1964). Lui (1985) states that corruption is able to reduce costs regarding to time of queuing, help corrupt public officials perform more effective and accelerate speed of their making decision. On the other side, Myrdal (1968) argues that if corruption can speeds up administrative processes, then public officials will have an incentive to create more rigidity and to maintain inflexible governmental procedures to gain more bribes.
Moreover, the existence of such payments may encourage the most gifted individuals to generate income through corrupt activities rather than through productive and efficient ones, which in turn would be detrimental to economic development (see Murphy, Shleifer and Vishny, 1991). With corruption, both local and foreign entrepreneurs seem to have no incentive for investment. Foreign entrepreneurs commonly have to pay bribes prior to business establishment stage and to remain in business they are also forced to pay a certain amount of money to public officials. Corruption impedes the foundation and expansion of corporations 10 | P a g e 123doc and then, harms economic growth.
Furthermore, Rose-Ackerman (1997) and Tanzi (1998) asserts that with the existence of corruption, transaction costs will climb, the development of a market economy will be hindered. Higher degree of uncertainty leads to an undermined free markets system and a decrease in the state revenues while raising state spending. In particular, government will get trouble with involvement to correct market failures since corruption settles the basic role of the state in contracts enforcement or property rights protection. Jain (2001) asserts that corruption also leads to resources misallocation, especially when the investment decisions using capital from state budget or endorsements of private projects are not based on the social value of actual plans, but on the possible income that corrupt public groups believe they can gain from their decisions.
Other arguments state that corruption might expand the income gap between the rich and the poor and lead to higher poverty. The explanation is that the social programs which aim to support the poor now divert to the rich who can take advantage of these programs to have capital at the cheap cost. This then harms the economic development (Gupta, Davoodi and Alonso-Terme (2002). Many empirical studies have been implemented to examine the above theories.
Major of them show that corruption might have negative effects on economic development.