Fracture and Fatigue Control in Structures: Applications of Fracture Mechanics Third Edition John M. Rolfe A S T M Stock Number: MNL41 ASTM 100 Barr Harbor Drive West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959 Printed in the U. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. The publisher offers special discounts on bulk orders of this book.
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Printed in Philadelphia, PA November 1999 Contents Foreword XV Preface xvii PART I: INTRODUCTION TO FRACTURE MECHANICS Chapter 1 Overview of the Problem of Fracture and Fatigue in Structures 3 1.4 Introduction to Fracture Mechanics 14 1.1 Driving Force, KI 14 1.2 Resistance Force, Kc 15 1.5 Fracture Mechanics Design 16 1.6 Fatigue and Stress-Corrosion Crack Growth 19 1.7 Fracture and Fatigue Control 23 1.9 Fitness for Service 25 1.11 References 26 Chapter 2 Stress Analysis for Members with Cracks--K I 28 2.2 Stress-Concentration Factor--k t 29 2.3 Stress-Intensity Factor--K~ 30 2.4 Stress-Intensity-Factor Equations 35 2.1 Through-Thickness Crack 35 2.2 Single-Edge Notch 35 vi CONTENTS 2.3 Embedded Elliptical or Circular Crack in Infinite Plate 37 2.5 Cracks Growing from Round Holes 40 2.6 Single Crack in Beam in Bending 40 2.7 Holes or Cracks Subjected to Point or Pressure Loading 41 2.8 Estimation of Other KI Factors 42 2.9 Superposition of Stress-Intensity Factors 47 2.5 Crack-Tip Deformation and Plastic Zone Size 49 2.6 Effective K1 Factor for Large Plastic Zone Size 51 2.7 J~ and 8~ Driving Forces 54 2.10 Griffith, CTOD and J-Integral Theories 58 2.1 The Griffith Theory 58 2.2 Crack-Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD) 58 and the Dugdale Model 60 2.3 J-Integral 63 PART Ih FRACTURE BEHAVIOR Chapter 3 Resistance Forces--Kc-Jc-Sc 67 3.2Service Conditions Affecting Fracture Toughness 69 3.3 ASTM Standard Fracture Tests 76 3.4 Fracture Behavior Regions 79 3.5 General ASTM Fracture Test Methodology 80 3.1 Test Specimen Size 80 3.2 Test Specimen Notch 82 3.3 Test Fixtures and Instrumentation 82 3.4 Analysis of Results 85 3.8 Appendix A: K, ], CTOD (8) Standard Test M e t h o d - - E 1820 91 Contents vii 3.9 Appendix B: Reference Temperature To, to Establish a Master Curve Using Kjc Values in Standard Test Method E 1921 93 Chapter 4 Effects of Temperature, Loading Rate, and Constraint 95 4.2 Effects of Temperature and Loading Rate on Kic, K~(t), and Kid 96 4.3 Effect of Loading Rate on Fracture Toughness 98 4.4 Effect of Constraint on Fracture Toughness 101 4.5 Loading-Rate Shift for Structural Steels 109 4.1 CVN Temperature Shift 109 4.2 KI~-K~dImpact-Loading-Rate Shift 110 4.3 Kic(t) Intermediate-Loading Rate Shift 111 4.4 Predictive Relationship for Temperature Shift 112 4.5 Significance of Temperature Shift 112 4.6 References 116 Chapter 5 CVN-KIa-K c Correlations 118 5.2 Two-Stage CVN-KId-K c Correlation 119 5.3 Kk-CVN Upper-Shelf Correlation 120 5.4 K~d Value at NDT Temperature 123 5.5 Comparison of CVN-K~d-Gc-]and ~ Relations 126 5.6 References 131 Chapter 6 Fracture-Mechanics Design 133 6.2 General Fracture-Mechanics Design Procedure for Terminal Failure 136 6.3 Design Selection of Materials 142 6.4 Design Analysis of Failure of a 260-In.-Diameter Motor Case 146 6.5 Design Example--Selection of a High-Strength Steel for a Pressure Vessel 150 6.1 Case I--Traditional Design Approach 150 6.2 Case II--Fracture-Mechanics Design 151 6.3 General Analysis of Cases I and II 157 6.6 References 159 viii CONTENTS PART I I h FATIGUE AND ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIOR Chapter 7 Introduction to Fatigue 163 7.2 Factors Affecting Fatigue Performance 164 7.1 Constant-Amplitude Loading 165 7.2 Variable-Amplitude Loading 166 7.1 Small Laboratory Tests 168 7.1a Fatigue-Crack-Initiation Tests 168 7.1b Fatigue-Crack-Propagation Tests 173 7.2 Tests of Actual or Simulated Structural Components 174 7.5 Some Characteristics of Fatigue Cracks 174 7.6 References 181 Chapter 8 Fatigue-Crack Initiation 182 8.2 Effect of Stress Concentration on Fatigue-Crack Initiation 184 8.3 Generalized Equation for Predicting the Fatigue-Crack-Initiation Threshold for Steels 187 8.4 Methodology for Predicting Fatigue-Crack Initiation from Notches 189 8.5 References 192 Chapter 9 Fatigue-Crack Propagation under Constant and Variable-Amplitude Load Fluctuation 194 9.2 Fatigue-Crack-Propagation Threshold 196 9.3 Constant Amplitude Load Fluctuation 2O0 9.1 Martensitic Steels 2OO 9.2 Ferrite-Pearlite Steels 201 9.3 Austenitic Stainless Steels 202 9.4 Aluminum and Titanium Alloys 202 9.4 Effect of Mean Stress on Fatigue-Crack Propagation Behavior 204 9.5 Effects on Cyclic Frequency and Waveform 205 Contents ix 9.6 Effects of Stress Concentration on Fatigue-Crack Growth 207 9.7 Fatigue-Crack Propagation in Steel Weldments 210 9.9 Variable-Amplitude Load Fluctuation 216 9.1 Probability-Density Distribution 216 9.2 Fatigue-Crack Growth under Variable-Amplitude Loading 218 9.3 Single and Multiple High-Load Fluctuations 220 9.4 Variable-Amplitude Load Fluctuations 221 9.1 The Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Model 222 9.2 Fatigue-Crack Growth Under Variable-Amplitude Ordered-Sequence Cyclic Load 223 9.10 Fatigue-Crack Growth in Various Steels 225 9.11 Fatigue-Crack Growth Under Various Unimodal Distribution Curves 227 9.12 References 232 Chapter 10 Fatigue and Fracture Behavior of Welded Components 237 10.5 Weld Discontinuities and Their Effects 243 10.1 Fatigue Crack Initiation Sites 246 10.6 Fatigue Crack Behavior of Welded Components 25O 10.1 Fatigue Behavior of Smooth Welded Components 250 10.1 Specimen Geometries and Test Methods 250 10.2 Effects of Surface Roughness 251 10.2 Fatigue Behavior of As-Welded Components 253 10.1 Effect of Geometry 256 10.2 Effect of Composition 258 10.3 Effect of Residual Stress 260 10.4 Effect of Postweld Heat Treatment 263 10.7 Methodologies of Various Codes and Standards 264 10.2 AASHTO Fatigue Design Curves for Welded Bridge Components 265 10.8 Variable Amplitude Cyclic Loads 269 x CONTENTS 10.9 Fracture-Toughness Behavior of Welded Components 272 10.3 Fracture-Toughness Tests for Weldments 275 10.10 References 279 Chapter 11 K, scc and Corrosion Fatigue Crack Initiation and Crack Propagation 281 11.2 Stress-Corrosion Cracking 281 11.1 Fracture-Mechanics Approach 283 11.3 Kiscc--A Material Property 286 11.5 KisccData for Some Material-Environment Systems 291 11.6 Crack-Growth-Rate Tests 294 11.3 Corrosion-Fatigue Crack Initiation 296 11.1 Test Specimens and Experimental Procedures 296 11.2 Corrosion-Fatigue-Crack-Initiation Behavior of Steels 298 11.1 Fatigue-Crack-Initiation Behavior 299 11.2 Corrosion Fatigue Crack-Initiation Behavior 299 11.3 Effect of Cyclic-Load Frequency 302 11.4 Effect of Stress Ratio 302 11.5 Long-Life Behavior 303 11.6 Generalized Equation for Predicting the Corrosion-Fatigue Crack-Initiation Behavior for Steels 304 11.4 Corrosion-Fatigue-Crack Propagation 305 11.1 Corrosion-Fatigue Crack-Propagation Threshold 306 11.2 Corrosion-Fatigue-Crack-Propagation Behavior Below Ki~cc 311 11.3 Effect of Cyclic-Stress Waveform 318 11.4 Environmental Effects During Transient Loading 320 11.5 Generalized Corrosion-Fatigue Behavior 322 11.5 Prevention of Corrosion-Fatigue Failures 325 11.6 References 326 Contents xi PART IV: FRACTURE AND FATIGUE CONTROL Chapter 12 Fracture and Fatigue Control 333 12.3 Fracture and Fatigue Control Plan 339 12.1 Identification of the Factors 340 12.2 Establishment of the Relative Contribution 342 12.3 Determination of Relative Efficiency 346 12.4 Recommendation of Specific Design Considerations 353 12.4 Fracture Control Plan for Steel Bridges 354 12.5 AASHTO Charpy V-Notch Requirements 356 12.6 Verification of the AASHTO Fracture Toughness Requirement 357 12.7 High-Performance Steels 357 12.5 Comprehensive Fracture-Control Plans-- George R.6 References 363 Chapter 13 Fracture Criteria 364 13.2 General Levels of Performance 366 13.3 Consequences of Failure 368 13.4 Original 15-ft-lb CVN Impact Criterion for Ship Steels 370 13.5 Transition-Temperature Criterion 373 13.6 Through-Thickness Yielding Criterion 374 13.7 Leak-Before-Break Criterion 378 13.8 Fracture Criterion for Steel Bridges 381 13.10 References 382 Chapter 14 Fitness for Service 384 xii CONTENTS 14.2 Use of Fracture Mechanics in Fitness-for-Service Analysis 385 14.2 Effect of Loading Rate 386 14.3 Effect of Constraint 389 14.4 Effect of Many Factors 394 14.3 Existing Fitness-for-Service Procedures 396 14.3 ASME Section XI 401 14.4 Benefits of a Proof or Hydro-Test to Establish Fitness for Continued Service 402 14.5 Difference Between Initiation and Arrest (Propagation) Fracture Toughness Behavior 404 14.6 References 408 PART V" APPLICATIONS OF FRACTURE MECHANICS--CASE STUDIES Chapter 15 Importance of Fracture Toughness and Proper Fabrication Procedures--The Bryte Bend Bridge 413 15.2 AASHTO Fracture Control Plan for Steel Bridges 414 15.3 Bryte Bend Bridge Brittle Fracture 414 15.4 Design Aspects of the Bryte Bend Bridge as Related to the AASHTO Fracture Control Plan (FCP) 420 15.5 Adequacy of the Current AASHTO Fracture Control Plan 423 15. Guaranteed Notch Toughness 423 15.2 Effect of Details on Fatigue Life 424 15.6 References 427 Chapter 16 Importance of Constraint and Loading--The Ingram Barge 428 16.2 Effect of Constraint on Structdral Behavior 428 16.3 Constraint Experiences in the Ship Industry 431 16.4 Ingram Barge Failure 431 16.6 References 437 Contents xiii Chapter 17 Importance of Loading and Inspection--Trans Alaska Pipeline Service Oil Tankers 438 17.3 Fracture Mechanics Methodology 439 17.4 Application of Methodology to a Detail in an Oil Tanker 441 17.1 Identification of Critical Details 441 17.3 Stress Intensity Factors and Critical Crack Size for Critical Details 443 17.4 Inspection Capability for Initial Crack Size, a o 444 17.5 Determination of Histogram for Fatigue Loading 445 17.6 Fatigue Crack Propagation in Bottom Shell Plates 447 17.5 Effect of Reduced Fatigue Loading 450 17.7 References 454 Chapter 18 Importance of Proper Analysis, Fracture Toughness, Fabrication, and Loading on Structural Behavior--Failure Analysis of a Lock-and-Dam Sheet Piling 455 18.2 Description of the Failure 457 18.4 Failure Analysis of Sheet 55 462 18.6 References 467 Chapter 19 Importance of Loading Rate on Structural Performance u Burst Tests of Steel Casings 468 19.2 Material and Experimental Procedures 468 19.6 Examination of API Specifications for J-55 and K-55 Casing 482 19.7 References 487 xiv CONTENTS Chapter 20 Problems 491 Part I 491 Part II 494 Part III 499 Part IV 502 Index 507 Foreword (George Irwin wrote the following foreword for the first and second editions of this book in 1977 andd 1987. Irwin, the father of fracture mechanics, passed away in 1998.) IN HIS WELL-KNOWNTEST on "Mathematical Theory of Elasticity," Love inserted brief discussions of several topics of engineering importance for which linear elastic treatment appeared inadequate.
One of these topics was rupture. Love noted that various safety factors, ranging from 6 to 12 and based upon ultimate tensile strength, were in common use. He commented that "the conditions of rupture are but vaguely understood." The first edition of Love's treatise was published in 1892. Fifty years later, structural materials had been improved with a corresponding decrease in the size of safety factors.
Although Love's comment was still applicable in terms of engineering practice in 1946, it is possible to see in retrospect that most of the ideas needed to formulate the mechanics of frac- turing on a sound basis were available. The basic content of modern fracture mechanics was developed in the 1946 to 1966 period. Serious fracture problems supplied adequate motivation and the development effort was natural to that time of intensive technological progress.