ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF THE EURO-AMERICAN EMIGRATION THROUGH SOUTHWESTERN IDAHO (1840-1862): EFFECT ON NATIVE LIFEWAYS by Garrett G. Webb A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Anthropology Boise State University December 2010 © 2010 Garrett G. Webb ALL RIGHTS RESERVED BOISE STATE UNIVERSITY GRADUATE COLLEGE DEFENSE COMMITTEE AND FINAL READING APPROVALS of the thesis submitted by Garrett G. Webb Thesis Title: Environmental Impact of the Euro-American Emigration Through Southwestern Idaho (1840-1862): Effect on Native Lifeways Date of Final Oral Examination: 14 October 2010 The following individuals read and discussed the thesis submitted by student Garrett G.
Webb, and they evaluated his presentation and response to questions during the final oral examination. They found that the student passed the final oral examination. Chair, Supervisory Committee Mark G. Member, Supervisory Committee Margaret A.
Member, Supervisory Committee The final reading approval of the thesis was granted by Christopher L., Chair of the Supervisory Committee. The thesis was approved for the Graduate College by John R., Dean of the Graduate College. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Throughout the process of writing this thesis, I received help from many admirable individuals whom I would like to thank. My thesis committee, Dr.
Christopher Hill, Dr. Mark Plew, and Dr. Margaret Streeter, gave their time, encouragement, invaluable advice, and guidance. Barbara Valdez provided editorial corrections and comments, which greatly refined the quality of the paper.
Faith Brigham cheerfully assisted with multifarious tasks. In addition to fraternity I am grateful to my fellow students for the intriguing discussions. I extend a special thanks to my family, friends, and the disheveled cat without a meow for their endless support and patience. iv ABSTRACT It has traditionally been held by historians that during the period of Euro- American emigration that preceded settlement of southwestern Idaho in 1863, environmental degradation stemming from emigrants undermined native lifeways and incited conflict between the two cultures.
The quantitative nature of the emigration, potential ecological impacts, and the historical perspective all suggest that such claims cannot be substantiated. Overall, the negative effect upon native lifeways may have been significantly less than what is maintained by the current historical paradigm. Instead, conditions of mutual interdependence that existed during the fur trade (1811-1840 A.) likely persisted throughout the period of emigration. It was not until Euro-American agro-pastoralists settled within southwestern Idaho that their land-use practices precipitated widespread intercultural conflict.
v TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT. v LIST OF TABLES. viii LIST OF FIGURES. ix CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION.
1 CHAPTER TWO: NATURAL SETTING. 13 CHAPTER THREE: NATIVE LIFEWAYS. 17 Ethnographic-Historic Model. 22 CHAPTER FOUR: INDIRECT CONTACT.
27 Introduction of the Horse. 37 CHAPTER FIVE: DIRECT CONTACT. 42 Euro-American Emigration. 57 CHAPTER SIX: DISCUSSION.
66 Nature of Emigration. 73 Depopulation of Game Animals. 96 CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSION. 104 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Foragers and Collectors .1 Emigrant Numbers and Destinations.
77 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 Emigrant Trails through Southern Idaho Prior to Settlement .1 Temperature and Precipitation .1 Population Density Estimate from Steward .2 Annual Subsistence Activities .1 Northward Spread of the Horse in the West .2 Archaeological Evidence of Interregional Trade .1 Main Routes of Westward Emigrant Passage .2 Season of Travel .5 Effect of Mining .1 Emigrant Numbers and Destinations .3 Emigrant Numbers in Boise .7 Streams and Emigrants. 92 x 1 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION The mass westward migration of Euro-American agro-pastoralists was one of the salient events of the 19th century. Beginning with Columbus’ landing in the New World, this migration furthered the continental subjugation of native inhabitants in North America (Zinn 1980: 1-22). It was a period of intensified intercultural contact in the West; however, it should not be automatically assumed that wherever such interaction took place, immediate degradation of environment and subversion of native lifeways resulted.
While migration acts as a mechanism of cultural change (Richerson and Boyd 2008) that typically sees hunter-gatherers conforming to agro-pastoralists to facilitate mutualism (Spielmann and Eder 1994: 307), the spatio-temporal idiosyncrasies of each region along routes of Euro-American passage should first be evaluated before concluding that emigrants caused only strife for indigenous hunter-gatherer populations. One such region that suggests emigrant-indigenous interests did not always stand in opposition but rather in alignment during emigration is southwestern Idaho. In southwestern Idaho, Euro-American contact with native inhabitants was defined by transitory emigrant traffic for over 20 years until settlement took place. Between 1840 and 1862 it is estimated that over 53,000 emigrants and accompanying livestock utilized the physiographically expedient Western Snake River Plain en route to western Oregon territory (Unruh 1982: Tab.
As depicted in Figure 1.1, Euro- American routes of passage were constrained to the relatively flat topographic areas of 2 the Western Plain. The main m course of the Oregon Trail, whhich spannedd the entiretyy of so outhern Idah ho for nearly y 400 miles (Hutchison ( aand Jones 19993: 12), crossed the Snaake River R at Three Island Cro ossing and prroceeded thrrough the reggion that preesently contaains th he modern ciity of Boise. The North and South A Alternates offfered emigrrants optionss to th he means by which they crossed the region. Botth rejoined thhe main traill corridor at different westtern localitiees.
The seeasonal passsage of emig grants and livvestock betw ween 1840 annd 1862 nfluenced thee local envirronment with in hin the trail corridor prioor to Euro-A American seettlement. Whether W nativ ve inhabitan nts perceivedd this as deleeteriously aff ffecting theirr su ubsistence ecconomy and d undoing naative lifewayys is unknow wn due to a paucity of verifiable evidence. Conttemporary historical h wo rks (e., Eriicson 1994: 86-87; Neitzzel 1998: 75-80) that focus upon u the regiion, howeverr, state that rresources weere “severelyy degraded” and that “envirronmental deegradation” exasperatedd cross-culturral relations,, Figuree 1.1 Emigrrant Trails through t Sou uthern Idah ho Prior to S Settlement 3 creating conflicts over territory and resources before settlement occurred. Ericson (1994: 87) goes as far as saying that by 1853 competition over resources between the two cultures became an “undeclared war.” Due to the narrow temporal window being discussed, the information pertaining to the natural setting, native lifeways, and the periods of indirect and direct contact creates a contextual framework from which inferences can be generated that address claims of environmental degradation and subsequent disruptions of native lifeways.
By employing such a framework, one can pursue the following questions: What was the actual environmental impact of emigrating Euro-Americans in southwestern Idaho prior to settlement, and how did it affect native lifeways? A critical discussion concerning the nature of the emigration, the possible ecological impacts resulting from emigrants, and the prevailing historical perspective suggests that claims by historians cannot be substantiated. Overall, the negative effect upon native lifeways may have been significantly less than what is maintained by the current historical paradigm. Until the settlement of southwestern Idaho by Euro-American agro-pastoralists and the resulting land-use conflicts, conditions of mutual interdependence that developed during the fur trade likely persisted throughout emigration. Numerous types of information were synthesized to facilitate a discussion of this topic.
Historical literature pertaining to the region was reviewed. Primary Euro- American historical materials (i., diaries, journals, newspapers, photos, early census data) provided invaluable spatio-temporal insight into human-environment interactions within the region. Since ethnographic-historic works of the mid-20th century have greatly influenced the modern perception of native lifeways, a review of that material was a 4 necessity. Available information from the archaeological record of the Late Archaic (2,000-250 B.) leading to the Protohistoric (250 B.-Historic period) was also utilized.
The cumulative amount of information provided by these sources was then used in conjunction with an environmental-anthropological perspective to construct inferences. The anthropological significance of this study is twofold. First, it provides an example of the relationship between the biophysical environment and humanity. This interaction is reflected in the diversity of human decisions that constitute evolving socio- economic systems within a continually changing environment.
The transforming environment, however, is partially a result of activities from the socio-economic system itself. Second, this study investigates conditions that promote relationships of cooperation and conflict between groups with different adaptive strategies. Cross- cultural interaction within southwestern Idaho between groups of Euro-Americans and local aboriginal inhabitants provides examples of how, why, and when cooperation can exist or breakdown within a shared environmental matrix. 5 CHAPTER TWO: NATURAL SETTING A description of the natural environment of the Snake River Plain is a fundamental starting point in framing the discussion regarding whether or not emigrating Euro-Americans disrupted native subsistence and lifeways within southwestern Idaho by causing environmental degradation.
The Snake River Plain is a physiographically and climatically diverse region that contains a wide variety of floral and faunal resources available for human exploitation. While hydrographically separate from the Great Basin since it discharges into the Pacific Ocean, it is ecologically part of the region (Gleason and Cronquist 1964: 375). This setting acted as the backdrop for all human land-use practices within the region, placing constraints on the adaptive responses of indigenous populations and Euro- Americans alike. Native lifeways prior to direct Euro-American influence largely arose out of a multiplicity of responses to geologic, climatic, pedological, floral and faunal conditions within the region.
During direct Euro-American contact within southwestern Idaho, these same environmental conditions affected indigenous development and the varied forms of Euro-American activities. Environmental factors influenced the manner in which the distinct objectives of fur trappers, emigrants, and settlers were carried out. During these phases of direct cross- cultural interaction, Euro-Americans exploited different niches within southwestern Idaho that supported the indigenous economy. An overview of environmental conditions 6 thus provides a way of evaluating how, why, and when Euro-American activities within the region could have precipitated intercultural conflict and led to the breakdown of a functionally interdependent relationship.
Geology The Snake River Plain is a late Cenozoic tectonic component in the North American crust that is composed of unique western and eastern parts, both of which are framed by mountains and highlands to the north and south (Malde 1991: 251). It is approximately 22 to 62 miles wide and 380 miles long (Malde 1991: 251, 256, 268). Altitudes range between 2,100 ft at the western terminus and 6,000 ft after a gradual climb near the headwaters of the Snake River in eastern Idaho (Malde 1991: 251). This nearly featureless swath of volcanically swept land provided emigrants a physiographically, expedient east to west route to western lands with minimal landscape impediments and a relatively gentle grade.
The Western Plain that emigrants passed through is a 161-mile long basin that is composed of sedimentary deposits that are underlain by thick basaltic flows and even deeper tuffaceous sediments (Malde 1991: 251, 256). Width of this part of the Plain ranges from 21 to 43 miles (Malde 1991: 256). Formation began over 17 Ma and grew headward toward the southeast until 3 Ma (Malde 1991: 251, 259). Deposits dating to the Quaternary consist of a veneer of basalt overlying basin sediments (Malde 1991: 251).
Elevation gradually decreases from east to west and ranges between 3,300 ft near Hagerman in the east and 2,000 ft at the western terminus (Malde 1991: 257). Adjacent to the Western Plain are the granitic mountains of the Idaho Batholith to the north and the Owyhee Mountains and Owyhee Plateau to the south (Malde 1991: Fig. 7 The Eastern Snake River Plain is characterized by rhyolitic volcanic rock beneath thinner basaltic lava flows (Malde 1991: 251). Both the rhyolite and the basalt are thought to be a result of the North American plate drifting over the hotspot that currently underlies the Yellowstone Plateau (Malde 1991: Fig.
Lava flows are interlayered with sedimentary deposits such as loess, sand dunes, playa, fluvial, and lacustrine deposits (Hackett and Bonnichsen 1994: 41). Width of the Eastern Plain is 55 to 62 miles and the length is nearly 220 miles (Malde 1991: 268). Like the Western Plain, elevation increases to the east (Malde 1991: 268).