Western Michigan University ScholarWorks at WMU Master's Theses Graduate College 12-2017 Trading to Drink and Drinking to Trade: Assessing Alcohol Trade and Consumption in Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century New France Cara A. Mosier Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.edu/masters_theses Part of the Anthropology Commons Recommended Citation Mosier, Cara A., "Trading to Drink and Drinking to Trade: Assessing Alcohol Trade and Consumption in Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century New France" (2017).edu/masters_theses/1992 This Masters Thesis-Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate College at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Master's Theses by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at WMU. For more information, please contact wmu-scholarworks@wmich.
TRADING TO DRINK AND DRINKING TO TRADE: ASSESSING ALCOHOL TRADE AND CONSUMPTION IN SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURY NEW FRANCE by Cara Mosier A thesis submitted to the Graduate College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Anthropology Western Michigan University December 2017 Thesis Committee: Dr. Michael Nassaney, Ph. LouAnn Wurst, Ph. José Brandão, Ph.
TRADING TO DRINK AND DRINKING TO TRADE: ASSESSING ALCOHOL TRADE AND CONSUMPTION IN SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURY NEW FRANCE Cara Mosier, M. Western Michigan University, 2017 Alcohol is one of the most misunderstood commodities used by both Native Americans and Europeans during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in North America. Although documentary sources are available, they can often provide conflicting information on the frequency of alcohol trade and its context of consumption. The archaeological record must be examined in conjunction with the primary and secondary sources to better understand alcohol consumption during this time.
My research is conducted to answer the question: what patterns emerge when comparing the archaeological record to the documentary record concerning Native alcohol consumption in the seventeenth and eighteenth century fur trade of New France? In this study, I examine the artifact collections from twelve archaeological sites, specifically the light blue-green and olive green container glass. These sites range in age from the early seventeenth century to the mid-eighteenth century and are located in four areas across New France. They are ideal sites to examine patterns of alcohol trade across time due to their context, age, and the presence of alcohol-related materials. Primary and secondary sources will be used to collect information on contact relationships, trade interactions, and alcohol consumption.
By analyzing these contexts, I assess patterns of alcohol consumption in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to determine if these patterns are supported or contradicted by the literature. I expect that the archaeological record will present patterns of alcohol consumption that differ from those in the documents from the seventeenth to the eighteenth century. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to extend a heartfelt thanks to my dedicated committee, Dr. Michael Nassaney, Dr.
José Brandão, and Dr. Many thanks to my lovely friends and family, Shelley Mosier, Stephanie Sicard, Caitlin Rogers, and Ryan Adams for their unflagging support in this endeavor. Cara Mosier ii Copyright by Cara Mosier 2017 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .ii LIST OF TABLES .iv LIST OF FIGURES .4 Primary and Secondary Sources .5 Alcohol-Related Behavior .21 Factors That Could Not Be Accounted For. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE DESCRIPTIONS.
ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION .48 Archaeological Data Analysis .48 Historical Documents Compared to Archaeological Data. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH .59 iii LIST OF TABLES 1. Archaeological sites arranged chronologically. Archaeological sites organized by their initial occupation dates and percentages of bottle glass to total assemblage.
Archaeological sites organized by mean occupation dates and percentages of bottle glass to total assemblage. Archaeological sites arranged according to their cultural affiliation .51 iv LIST OF FIGURES 1. Small to medium sized flacons. Medium sized bouteille.
Light blue-green flacon 'case' bottle from Fort Michilimackinac. Olive green bouteille from Fort Michilimackinac. Map of archaeological sites in this study. Olive green and light-blue green bottle glass fragments from Fort Michilimackinac .40 v CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, alcohol was used by Europeans to promote trade (Mancall 1995).
Liquor trade became a means for expansion, both geographically and economically (Gilman 1982; Unrau 1996). The consumption of alcohol, as a result of this trade, has long been documented in primary sources and is evident in the archaeological record (Long 1791; Peyser 1978; Peyser and Brandão 2008; Ray 1974; Sullivan 1922; Thwaites 1959). The goal of this research is to compare information on alcohol consumption presented in primary sources and discussed in the secondary sources, against the archaeological evidence at a variety of sites to gain a better understanding of alcohol consumption during the seventeenth and eighteenth century in New France. The impetus for this project comes from the uncertainty regarding Native alcohol consumption during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in New France.
Although there are multiple documented accounts that discuss Native alcohol consumption, a comparison has not been made between these documents and the archaeological record. At this time, multiple lines of evidence have not been examined in conjunction with each other regarding this subject. My research is conducted to answer the question: What patterns emerge when comparing the archaeological record to the documentary record concerning Native alcohol consumption in the seventeenth and eighteenth century fur trade of New France? 1 In this research project, these combined sources are used to address changes in alcohol consumption among Native communities in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Documentary sources suggest that alcohol consumption increased from the seventeenth to the eighteenth centuries despite the restrictions placed on such trade due to increased alcohol trade noted in primary sources and the increased demand resulting from alcohol dependence (Mancall 1995).
Based on the literature, I hypothesized that, due to a greater demand from alcohol dependence, alcohol trade increased from the seventeenth to the eighteenth centuries, despite the restrictions placed on such trade (Mancall 1995). This rise in trade would have resulted in increased evidence of alcohol bottles at these sites. I also compared Native sites to European sites. I hypothesized that there would be higher percentages of alcohol-related bottle glass at Native sites, possibly more so than their European counterparts, due to the amount of liquor consumed by Natives as recorded in the literature.
In addition, this analysis compared historical documents to archaeological data. I hypothesized that the archaeological record may contradict these sources, as the primary and secondary sources provide conflicting and biased accounts. I examined the artifact collections of twelve archaeological sites, both Native and European, for alcohol-related items, most notably light blue-green and olive green container glass. These sites were selected because of the availability of data, their cultural contexts, and site date and the presence of material remains associated with alcohol.
I used ratios of bottle glass count to total artifact count to standardize the data to control for differences in sites with longer occupation periods or data collected with different field methods. Primary and secondary sources were used to provide historical background on alcohol consumption to be compared with the archaeological data. 2 This research project fills a gap in the colonial fur trade narrative regarding alcohol trade and consumption by Europeans and Natives. This topic is under-explored archaeologically, though examined thoroughly through the primary and secondary sources.
However, it is necessary to combine these sources, both archaeological and documentary, to explore a more complete narrative of alcohol trade during the seventeenth and eighteenth century fur trade in New France. By understanding what the archaeological record contributes to the current knowledge on alcohol in Native communities during this time, we can better interpret the documentary resources on it, creating a dynamic and full picture of this topic. 3 CHAPTER II HISTORICAL CONTEXT The North American fur trade began in the St. Lawrence River Valley during the sixteenth century and stretched to the Pacific Northwest by the nineteenth century (Nassaney 2015:36).
Although Natives were not originally considered in the Europeans’ plans for colonization, they soon began to use the Natives’ expertise to further their own expansion through the fur trade (Nassaney 2015:37). Europeans became eager to trade with their Native counterparts to ensure their cooperation and to create a capitalist market in their new home. For the Natives, trade was already a significant part of their social, economic, and political lifestyle (Nassaney 2015:38). Due to the relationships formed between these groups, a lucrative trade began for a variety of goods, including furs, cloth, beads, weapons, ceramics, food, and alcohol (Nassaney 2015).
As such, in the seventeenth century, alcohol became a significant trade item between the Native Americans and the French (Mancall 1995). However, there is some confusion regarding the volume of alcohol in the trade, due to the attempts at regulation of such trade and a varying level of interest in alcohol by Natives (Gonzalez 1977). As regulations were not always observed in trade transactions, and as such were not always recorded, nor was record keeping reliable, the amount of alcohol traded is up for debate (Gonzalez 1977). First-hand accounts provide contradicting amounts based on the authors’ experiences and biases, as well as contradicting records of Native behaviors (Gonzalez 1977; Mancall 1995).
4 Much of the literature surrounding the topic of alcohol trade during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries discusses the behaviors of those who indulged in alcohol and the regulations placed on those trades (Axtell 2001; Dailey 1968; Healey 1958; Kehoe 2000; Mancall 1995; Quintero 2001; Ray 1974; Ronda 1972; Unrau 1996). Very few explore the volume or frequency and context of alcohol consumption (Anderson 1992; Jordan 2008). This chapter presents an overview of research conducted on alcohol consumption during the North American fur trade, exploring information provided by the primary and secondary sources. Primary and Secondary Sources Over the early to mid-seventeenth century, alcohol began to play a more significant role in the relationships between Europeans and Natives (Mancall 1995).
The increase of European goods at Native sites is well-reflected in the written record. Primary and secondary sources on contact relationships and trade interactions often discuss alcohol as a factor in those relationships. Primary sources are a significant resource and are invaluable when discussing Native and European interactions. These records provide a variety of experiences with Natives and alcohol consumption during the seventeenth to eighteenth centuries in New France.
Secondary sources provide insightful discussions of these primary sources, ethnographic research, and archaeological data to compose a picture of Native alcohol consumption in the mid-seventeenth through mid-eighteenth centuries fur trade. These sources focus on two main topics, alcohol-related behavior and regulations placed on alcohol trade. 5 Alcohol-Related Behavior One of the most common themes regarding alcohol consumption during this time is behavior resulting from drinking. Alcohol was highly sought in the fur trade and was used as a bargaining chip to persuade Natives to enter into trade alliances (Mancall 1995).
As the regular trade of alcohol became a means of maintaining relationships between the French and Native communities, Natives were forced to deal with an unfamiliar substance. According to Axtell (2001), liquor began to grow in popularity among the Native peoples of America beginning in the early seventeenth century, leading them to create their own rules for dealing with alcohol. Opinions regarding alcohol’s introduction into Native society were often conflicting. However, many Natives acknowledged its often negative effects on their communities and made efforts to restrict the alcohol trade (Mancall 1995; Nassaney 2015:59).
Still, alcohol was traded or gifted in many locations, wherever Natives and Europeans met, with almost every major settlement in possession of a liquor seller (Mancall 1995). Gifts were used to foster successful trade relations and encourage trust between Natives and Europeans (Nassaney 2015; White 1984). The French often included alcohol in gift-giving ceremonies, at trade fairs, and in peace negotiations, as a way to control and guide the trade in favorable ways (Axtell 2001; Mancall 1995; Ray 1974). Spirits were sometimes provided in lieu of payment for labor, although it was often a watered-down version that allowed the alcohol to ‘go further’ as well as decrease drunkenness (Mancall 1995).