6133X Cover 11/20/08 12:36 PM Page 1 C M Y CM MY CY CMY K Materials Science INTRODUCTION TO THE Naumann PHYSICS and PHYSICS and CHEMISTRY of MATERIALS INTRODUCTION TO THE CHEMISTRY of MATERIALS INTRODUCTION TO THE Providing the foundation needed for more advanced work in materials science, Introduction to the Physics and Chemistry of Materials discusses the structure and properties of materials and how these materials are used in diverse applications. The text covers chemical PHYSICS and bonding, crystal structure, mechanical properties, phase transformations, and materials processing. It also focuses on thermal, electronic, photonic, optical, and magnetic properties of materials. CHEMISTRY Requiring no prior experience in modern physics and quantum mechanics, the book introduces quantum concepts and wave mechanics through a simple derivation of the Schrödinger equation, the electron- in-a-box problem, and the wave functions of the hydrogen atom.
The of MATERIALS author also presents a historical perspective on the development of the materials science field. He discusses the Bose–Einstein, Maxwell–Boltzmann, Planck, and Fermi–Dirac distribution functions before moving on to the various properties and applications of materials. With detailed derivations of important equations, this applications- oriented text examines the structure and properties of materials, such as heavy metal glasses and superconductors. It also explores recent developments in organics electronics, polymer light-emitting diodes, superconductivity, and more.
FEATURES • Presents basic concepts of solid state chemistry, such as chemical bonding and diffraction • Relates mechanical, thermal, electronic, photonic, and magnetic properties to the structure of organic and inorganic materials • Introduces point and space groups as well as Strukturbericht and Pearson notation • Explores contemporary developments in photonics and magnetoelectronics, including polymer light-emitting diodes, flash memories, and magnetic storage Robert J. Naumann • Provides examples to evaluate how well simplified theories predict the actual performance of various materials 6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487 6133X 270 Madison Avenue an informa business New York, NY 10016 2 Park Square, Milton Park Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN, UK INTRODUCTION TO THE PHYSICS and CHEMISTRY of MATERIALS INTRODUCTION TO THE PHYSICS and CHEMISTRY of MATERIALS Robert J. Naumann Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U. Government works Version Date: 20131104 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4200-6134-5 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources.
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For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.com Contents Preface. xxv Chapter 1 Introduction to Materials Science .1 What Is Materials Science? .2 Role of Materials in History .3 How Materials Are Classified .4 Overview of the Classes of Materials and Their Properties .5 Contemporary Materials Science .4 Computational Process Modeling.6 Advanced Structural Materials .13 Structure of Biological Macromolecular Crystals .6 What Is the Future of Materials Science?.
12 Chapter 2 Fundamental Principles .1 Review of Atomic Structure .1 History of Spectra .1 de Broglie Wavelength .2 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.3 Schrödinger Wave Equation.1 Electrons in a Box.2 Wavefunctions for the Hydrogen Atom.4 One Electron Approximation .1 Pauli Exclusion Principle.2 Theoretical Basis for the Periodic Table. 31 Chapter 3 Chemical Bonding .1 What Holds Stuff Together? .1 Electronegativity and Electron Affinity .5 Born–Haber Cycle .1 Heitler–London Theory .3 Sigma and Pi Bonds.2 Why No Metallic Hydrogen? .5 Atomic and Ionic Radii .3 van der Waals Bond .4 Lennard–Jones 6–12 Potential .7 Other Potential Functions .1 Born–Mayer Potential. 56 Appendix: Madelung Summation. 59 Chapter 4 Crystals and Crystallography .1 What Are Crystals? .2 Crystal Lattice and the Translation Group.6 Miller–Bravais Notation .2 Crystal Systems and Symmetry .1 Point Symmetry Operations .2Basic Crystal Systems .5 Hexagonal Close-Packed Lattice.1 Density and Packing Calculations .3 Atomic Packing Factor .1 Interstitial Sites in the Simple Cubic Lattice .2 Interstitial Sites in the Face-Centered Cubic Lattice .3 Interstitial Sites in the Body-Centered Cubic Lattice .4 Interstitial Sites in the Hexagonal Close-Packed Lattice .5 Comparison of Interstitial Sites in the Metallic Lattices.
86 Chapter 5 The Structure of Matter .1 Structure of Metals.1 Face-Centered Cubic Versus Hexagonal Close-Packed Structures.2 Double Close-Pack Structures .3 Body-Centered Cubic Structures.4 What Determines Which Structure a Metal Will Have? .1 Strukturbericht and Pearson Notation.2 NiAl Intermetallic Phases.1 Cesium Chloride Structure (B2) .2 Rock Salt or Sodium Chloride Structure (B1) .5 Spinel and Inverse Spinel Structure (H11).6 Structures with Small Cation-to-Anion Ratios .2 Sphalerite or Zinc Blende (B3).6 Fullerenes, Fullerites, and Fullerides.8 Other Hexagonal Ring Structures.10 Other Silicate Structures.12 Electron-Deficient Solids .5 Structure of Glass .6 Structure of Polymers .5 Ziegler–Natta Catalysts and Stereoisomerism. 119 Papers Dealing with Methods for Computing Lattice Energies. 119 Other References Involving Structures. 119 For More Information on Intermetallic Compounds.
119 Books and Papers on Fullerenes. 119 Chapter 6 Reciprocal Lattice and X-Ray Diffraction .1 Fourier Expansion of the Electron Density .2 Reciprocal Lattice Vector.3 Lattice Types in Reciprocal Space.1 Simple Cubic Direct Lattice.2 Body-Centered Cubic Direct Lattice .3 Face-Centered Cubic Direct Lattice.1 Atomic Form Factor.4 Methods and Uses of X-Ray Diffraction.1 Debye–Scherrer or Powder Method .4Rotating Crystal Method.5Obtaining Structure from X-Ray Diffraction Data. 139 Chapter 7 Theory of Elasticity .1 Elastic Coefficients .3 Elastic Coefficient Tensor.2 Properties of Crystals with Cubic Symmetry .3 Measurement of Elastic Coefficients .4 Bond Energy—Elastic Coefficients Relationships .2 Elastic Coefficients .5 Ionically Bonded Systems. 155 Chapter 8 Defects in Crystals.1 What Are Defects? .2 Frenkel and Schottky Defects .3 Line or One-Dimensional Defects.1 Slip in Metallic Crystals .2 Resolved Shear Stress .9 Screw Locations and Crystal Growth .4 Two-Dimensional or Planar Defects.2 Estimating Surface Energy for Ionic Solids .4 Tilt and Twist Boundaries.5 Volume or Three-Dimensional Defects .1 Diffusion Coefficient .6 Expansions for the Error Function.
173 Chapter 9 Mechanical Properties of Materials .1 Stress–Strain Relationships .3 True Stress and True Strain .2 Relationship between Lattice Type and Ductility .1 Slip Systems in Metals.2 Slip Systems in Ionically Bonded Ceramics .2 Grain Refining .3 Solid Solution Hardening.2 Griffith’s Theory of Brittle Fracture.3 Orowan–Griffith Theory .5 Ductile-to-Brittle Transformation.6 Mechanical Properties of Polymers .4 Viscoelastic Relaxation Modulus .1 History of Composites.2 Types of Composites .2 Metal–Metal Laminates.3 Metal–Graphite Laminates .4 Ceramic=Metal Laminates .2 Particle-Reinforced Composites .1 Small Particle Composites .2 Large Particle Composites .3 Fiber-Reinforced Composites .1 Fiber-Reinforced Metal Matrix Composites.2 Fiber-Reinforced Ceramic Matrix Composites .3 Carbon–Carbon Composites .4 Polymer Matrix Composites.3 Modeling the Performance of Composites .1 Rule of Mixtures.2 Critical Fiber Length.3 Continuous Aligned Fiber-Reinforced Composites. 208 Chapter 11 Phase Equilibria in Single Component Systems .1 Definition of a Phase.2 Solidification of Pure Systems .1 Gibbs Phase Rule .2 Enthalpy of Fusion.3 Entropy of Fusion .4 Gibbs Free Energy.5 First- and Second-Order Phase Transitions.3 Solidification Process .3 Effect of Pressure on Melting Point.4 Effect of Curvature on Melting Point.4 Classical Homogeneous Nucleation Theory .6 Recent Developments in Undercooling Experiments. 222 xii Contents Bibliography. 223 Chapter 12 Phase Equilibria in Multicomponent Systems .1 Gibbs Phase Rule.2 Entropy of Mixing.3 Heat of Mixing.2 Method of Tangents.5 Constructing a Phase Diagram from Free Energy Curves .5 Phase Diagram for Ideal (Isomorphic) Systems .1 Solid Solutions and the Hume-Rotherty Criteria .2 Segregation or Partition Coefficient .3 Equilibrium Solidification .4 Nonequilibrium Solidification—Coring.5 Order–Disorder Transitions.2 Eutectic and Eutectoid Systems .3 Formation of the Microstructure in Eutectics .4 The Hunt–Jackson Theory of Lamella Spacing .5 Solidification of Off-Eutectic Systems .6 Peritectic and Peritectoid Systems .7 Monotectic and Monotectoid Systems .8 Mixed Valence Systems.
253 Chapter 13 Alloy Solidification.1 Solidification of Multicomponent Systems.2 Directional Solidification.3 Complete Mixing, the Scheil Equation .4 No Convective Mixing, Steady-State Solidification .6 Plane Front Solidification, Constitutional Undercooling .7 Particle=Solidification Front Interactions.1 Traveling Zone Method .2 Floating Zone Crystal Growth .3 Zone Refining=Purification.4 Czochralski Method of Crystal Growth .2 Hot Isostatic Pressing .3 Liquid-Phase Sintering .1 Physical Vapor Deposition .2 Chemical Vapor Deposition. 271 Chapter 14 Transformation Kinetics .1 The Avrami Equation .2 Isothermal Time-Temperature-Transformations .1 Austenitic to Ferritic Transformation.3 Coarsening and Ripening .4 Precipitation or Age Hardening.5 Heat-Treatable Alloy Systems .4 Transformation-Induced Plasticity Steels .8 Shape Memory Alloys.1 Crystalline Growth Rate .2 Viscosity–Diffusivity Relationships.3 Glass Transition Temperature.4 Time-Temperature-Transformation Diagrams.5 Glass-Forming Systems. 294 Chapter 15 Distribution Functions .1 Specifying the State of a System .2 Bose–Einstein Statistics.1 Maxwell–Boltzmann Statistics.2 Planck Distribution Function .3 Fermi–Dirac Statistics .4 Chemical Potential and Fermi Energy. 304 xiv Contents Appendix .1 Derivation of the Identities.2 Entropy of an Ideal Gas .3 Planck Theory of Black Body Radiation.
309 Chapter 16 Lattice Vibrations and Phonons .1 Vibrations in a Linear Homogeneous Medium .2 Waves on a Chain of Like Atoms.1 Bragg Reflections at the First Brillouin Zone.2 Normal Modes in a Linear Chain of Atoms .3 Motion of Atoms in a Diatomic Chain .2 Energy Gap at the First Brillouin Zone .4 Normal Modes in a Diatomic Chain.4 Tests of the Model.1 Relating the Force Constant to the Elastic Coefficients.2 Comparison with Observed Data. 320 Chapter 17 Thermal Properties of Solids.1 Lattice Heat Capacity .2 Dulong–Petit Classical Limit .1 Critique of the Debye Model.3 Electronic Heat Capacity.1 Ideal Gas Model .2 Lattice Thermal Conductivity .3 Electron Thermal Conductivity.6 Coupled Transport Effects .1 Dufour and Soret–Ludwig Effects.3 Seebeck and Peltier Effects. 338 Contents xv Chapter 18 Free Electrons in Metals .1 Drude Theory of Free Electrons in Metals .2 Classical Electron Dynamics.1 Effect of Impurities and Defects .2 Temperature Dependence of Resistivity.3 Grüneisen Model of Resistivity.3 Problems with the Classical Free Electron Gas Theory.2 Mean Free Path Considerations .3 Electronic Heat Capacity and Paramagnetism .4 Quantum Theory of Free Electrons .6 Wiedemann–Franz Ratio. 353 Chapter 19 Band Theory of Metals.1 Nearly Free Electron Model.1 Wavefunctions for Traveling Electrons .2 Energy Gap at the Brillouin Zone .2 Binary Phase Diagrams for Mixed Valency Metals .3 Band Structure in Metals.1 The Bloch Theorem and the Reduced Band Scheme .2 Effective Electron Mass .5 Band Structure in Real Systems .4 Conductivity and the Fermi Surface .5 Tight Binding Approximation.1 Conductivity in Divalent Metals .1 Proof That a Wavefunction Displaced by G Is Unchanged .1 The Group IV Systems .1 The Chemical Picture.2 The Bandgap Energy .3 The Energy Band Picture .1 Fermi Level in Intrinsic Semiconductors .2 Electron–Hole Product .3 Energy Band Structure .4 Effective Electron and Hole Masses .2 Fermi Levels in Extrinsic Semiconductors .4 Hall Coefficient for Both Electrons and Holes.5 Conductivity of Semiconductors.1 Absorption Edge for Direct Bandgap Semiconductors .2 Absorption Edge for Indirect Bandgap Semiconductors .1 Energy Levels of Confined Electrons .