C i ht b ASTM I t'l ( ll i ht d) S t J 13 22 38 13 EDT 2009 AST-EROSION-07-0601-0FM 10/19/07 3:18 PM Page i Guide to Friction, Wear, and Erosion Testing Kenneth G. Budinski Technical Director Bud Labs ASTM Stock Number: MNL56 ASTM International 100 Barr Harbor Drive PO Box C700 West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959 Printed in the U. C i ht b ASTM I t'l ( ll i ht d) S t J 13 22 38 13 EDT 2009 AST-EROSION-07-0601-0FM 10/19/07 3:18 PM Page ii ii Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Budinski, Kenneth G. MNL 56 guide to friction, wear and erosion testing/Kenneth G.
“ASTM Stock Number: MNL56. Title: MNL fifty six guide to friction, wear and erosion testing.1’1292—dc22 2007031507 Copyright © 2007 ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced or copied, in whole or in part, in any printed, mechanical, electronic, film, or other distribution and storage media, without the written consent of the publisher.
Photocopy Rights Authorization to photocopy items for internal, personal, or educational classroom use, or the internal, personal, or educational classroom use of specific clients, is granted by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) provided that the appropriate fee is paid to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923; Tel: 508-750-8400; online: http://www. NOTE: This manual does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this manual to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. Month, Year City, State C i ht b ASTM I t'l ( ll i ht d) S t J 13 22 38 13 EDT 2009 AST-EROSION-07-0601-0FM 10/19/07 3:18 PM Page iii iii Contents Foreword.
xi Chapter 1—Identification of Different Types of Wear. 1 Terminology/Key Words. 1 Terms from ASTM G 40: Terminology Relating to Wear and Erosion. 1 Terms from ASTM D 4175: Standard Terminology Relating to Petroleum, Petroleum Products, and Lubricants.
2 Terms from Other Sources. 3 Why Identify Wear Mode. 3 Categories of Wear. 7 Other Forms of Wear.
8 Human Joint Deterioration. 11 Types of Friction. 12 Solids Contacted by a Fluid. 12 Static Friction/Blocking.
12 Types of Lubrication. 15 Resources for More Information. 15 Chapter 2—Alternatives to Testing: Modeling and Simulation. 17 Finite Element Modeling.
19 Solid Particle Erosion. 20 C i ht b ASTM I t'l ( ll i ht d) S t J 13 22 38 13 EDT 2009 AST-EROSION-07-0601-0FM 10/19/07 3:18 PM Page iv iv CONTENTS Cavitation. 21 Surface Fatigue Models. 22 What to Do About Modeling: Summary.
22 Resources for More Information. 22 Chapter 3—Methodology/Test Selection. 24 Establish the Purpose. 24 Establish the Objective.
24 Define the Wear System. 24 Reporting the Data. 25 Elements of a Valid Wear Test. 27 Role of Time and Distance.
28 Wear and Friction Measurements. 28 Reporting Wear Losses. 31 Resources for More Information. 32 Chapter 4—Abrasive Wear Testing.
33 Low-Stress Abrasion. 39 High-Stress Abrasion. 41 Photographic Paper/Film, Plastics, Paints. 42 Ball Cratering Test.
43 Resources for More Information. 43 Chapter 5—Adhesive Wear Testing. 45 Pin-on-Disk: ASTM G 99. 45 Reciprocating Ball-on-Plane: ASTM G 133.
46 Block-on-Ring: ASTM G 77. 49 C i ht b ASTM I t'l ( ll i ht d) S t J 13 22 38 13 EDT 2009 AST-EROSION-07-0601-0FM 10/19/07 3:18 PM Page v CONTENTS v Chapter Summary. 50 Resources for More Information. 50 Chapter 6—Plastic/Elastomer Wear.
53 Dry-Sand Rubber Wheel: ASTM G 65. 53 Loop Abrasion Test: ASTM G 174. 54 Scratch Test: ASTM G 171. 55 Sliding Wear of Plastics/Elastomers.
56 Plastic-to-Metal. 56 Pin-on-Rotating Disk. 57 Plastic-to-Plastic. 57 Plastic-to-Ceramic/Cermet.
58 Specific Wear Rate. 58 Erosion of Plastics. 60 Resources for More Information. 60 Chapter 7—Lubricated Wear Tests.
62 Types of Lubricants That Can Be Encountered. 63 Solid Film Lubricants. 63 ASTM Lubricated Wear Tests. 66 Block-on-Ring: ASTM G 77.
66 Reciprocating Test: ASTM G 133. 66 Pin-on-Disk: ASTM G 99. 67 Four-Ball Test: ASTM D 4172. 67 Friction and Wear of Greases with the SRV Tester: ASTM D 5707.
67 BOCLE: Ball-on-Cylinder: ASTM D 5001. 67 Load-Carrying Capability Tests. 68 Pin and Vee Block: ASTM D 2670. 68 ASTM D 5183 Four-Ball Friction Test.
68 ASTM D 2981 Block-on-Ring Test for Solid Lubricants. 68 A Lubricated Fretting Test. 68 Testing Gears with the FZG Rig. 69 Rolling Element Tests.
70 Resources for More Information. 70 Chapter 8—Fretting Tests. 71 Mechanisms of Fretting Corrosion and Wear. 72 Ball-on-Plane.
73 Standard Tests: Fretting Fatigue. 74 Electrical Contact Tests. 74 Hip Implant Couples. 76 C i ht b ASTM I t'l ( ll i ht d) S t J 13 22 38 13 EDT 2009 AST-EROSION-07-0601-0FM 10/19/07 3:18 PM Page vi vi CONTENTS Chapter Summary.
76 Resources for More Information. 76 Chapter 9—Rolling Wear, Impact Wear, and Surface Fatigue Testing. 78 Surface Fatigue of Coatings and Surface Treatments. 78 Surface Fatigue in Rolling Element Bearings.
79 Surface Fatigue of Rails, Tracks, and Wheels. 81 Surface Fatigue of Gears. 81 Impact Wear and Surface Fatigue. 82 Rolling Element Wear Tests.
83 Gear Fatigue Tests. 84 Rolling Surface Fatigue Tests. 84 Impact Wear Tests. 85 Resources for More Information.
85 Chapter 10—Erosion Testing. 86 Solid Particle Erosion Tests. 86 Falling Sand Test. 86 Gas Jet Erosion Test.
86 Slurry Erosion Tests. 87 Wet-Sand/Rubber Wheel and the Carbide Abrasion Test. 89 Ball Cratering Test. 90 Droplet/Impingement Erosion.
91 Cavitation Testing with an Ultrasonic Horn. 91 Submerged Water Jet Cavitation Test. 93 Resources for More Information. 93 Chapter 11—Types of Friction and Friction Testing.
95 Origin of Friction. 95 Importance of Friction. 96 Types of Friction and Important Facts. 98 Factors That Affect Friction.
98 Sliding Friction Tests. 100 Friction Measurement and Recording Protocol. 102 Reporting Friction Data. 103 Solid-on-Solid Friction Tests.
104 Pavement/Tire Tests. 104 ASTM G 143: Capstan Friction. 104 Solid-on-Solid Plus Third Body Tests. 105 Thrust Washer Test.
105 Block-on-Ring Test. 106 Pin-on-Disk. 106 Reciprocating Block-on-Plane. 107 Bearing Friction Tester.
107 Spin-Down Friction Testing. 108 C i ht b ASTM I t'l ( ll i ht d) S t J 13 22 38 13 EDT 2009 AST-EROSION-07-0601-0FM 10/19/07 3:18 PM Page vii CONTENTS vii Friction of Ball Bearings at Low Temperature. 108 Ball Bearing Friction at Room Temperature. 108 Solid-on-Solid Plus a Fluid/Lube Friction.
109 ASTM D 5183: Four-Ball Friction Test. 109 ASTM D 3233: Falex Pin-and-Vee Block Test. 109 ASTM D 6425: Reciprocating Lubricated Friction and Wear (SRV Machine). 109 ASTM G 133: Procedure B Reciprocating Ball-on-Plane and Lube Test.
110 Resources for More Information. 110 Chapter 12—Micro-, Nano-, and Biotribotests. 112 Surface Analysis Tools. 115 Scanning Electron Microscopy.
115 Scanning Probe Microscopy. 118 Resources for More Information. 119 Chapter 13—Test Confidence and Correlation with Service. 120 Correlation Case Histories.
124 Wear of Plastics. 126 Solid Particle Erosion. 126 Lubricated Wear Testing. 128 Resources for More Information.
130 C i ht b ASTM I t'l ( ll i ht d) S t J 13 22 38 13 EDT 2009 AST-EROSION-07-0601-0FM 10/19/07 3:18 PM Page viii C i ht b ASTM I t'l ( ll i ht d) S t J 13 22 38 13 EDT 2009 AST-EROSION-07-0601-0FM 10/19/07 3:18 PM Page ix ix Foreword This book is the product of a career devoted to selecting materials for a multitude of sliding/rolling/eroded mechanical components. Some components were commercial products that had to compete in the world market, and others were parts in production machinery that had to produce those marketed products. The author’s responsibility was to achieve useful levels of friction and component life, all at competitive prices. Kenneth Budinski began with degrees in Metallurgy, with virtually no knowledge of the problem of sliding/rolling surfaces.
He progressed through his career with no research funding, no graduate students, and no authorization to conduct academic style research. Nonetheless, he attained a uniquely broad expe- rience in measuring friction and wear of a very wide range of metals, ceramics, and polymers, and with very many surface processes and coatings. Budinski has been a member of Committee G02 of the ASTM (on Wear and Erosion) since 1970, sometime chair of the Committee and of its various subcommittees, and recipient of the highest G02 awards. Hardly a meeting has gone by without Budinski’s presentation of yet another careful study of a wear test, together with his rigorous analysis of data from his tests.
It is this combination of practical experience and scholarly discussion that has prepared Budinski to write this book. It is part definitions of terms, part identification of tribological (friction, wear, lubrication) mecha- nisms, part description of standard test machines, and part discussion of the philosophy of testing and material evaluation. This book is one of many of Budinski’s writings, including several books, chapters in handbooks, journal papers, and other presentations. As for test devices, there are hundreds.
An account is given in this book on why most of the tests were developed and what fundamental mechanisms of wear or friction are likely functioning in each test. Indeed, in the usual case, several mechanisms may function simultaneously, changing over time of sliding, or changing during start-stop cycles of test, and changing as the use of the intended product changes. Budinski missed none of these points. This book is a very early progress report on the art of designing a given life into mechanical compo- nents.
There is not, as too many designers suppose, a direct pathway to selecting that “right” material for every product. Selecting a material to hold a tensile load is simple in that tensile properties of most mate- rials are published and mature equations are in hand to work out the safe dimensions of such parts. Wear properties are not that simple. There are several mechanisms whereby little bits of material are made to depart from or be rearranged upon a tribological surface.
Tribological wisdom begins by identifying the major applicable mechanism and the likely one or two attending mechanisms. Even then, there are no reliable lists of mate- rials showing resistance to specific mechanisms. Neither are there any wear tests that can be linked directly to real products. Budinski sorts out all of these issues in his several chapters.
Other authors would likely divide up the overall array differently but probably not better. The final word is that good tribological design requires a broad knowledge of tribological mecha- nisms, a feel for what materials may fit the case, a careful resort to wear/friction/erosion testing to narrow the range of choices, and then an assessment of the chosen material in products or production machin- ery. Getting it right in products puts your very company at stake: getting it right in production machinery only involves more maintenance. Budinski offers several case studies to illustrate these points.
Budinski steps into another world, though, when discussing wear/friction/erosion models. He offers a very few equations without much conviction of their utility. He mentions that if models or equations were further developed there would be no need for tests of the type he describes in this book—-a very distant hope.