FIFTY EASTERN THINKERS Close exposition and analysis of fifty major thinkers in eastern philosophy and religion form the core of this introduction to a fascinating area of study. The authors have drawn on the major eastern traditions, examining founder figures such as Zoroaster, Confucius and Muhammad, through to modern thinkers such as Mao Zedong, Nishitani and Gandhi. General introductions to the major traditions and a glossary of philosophical terms, as well as bibliographies and recommended further reading for each thinker, make this a comprehensive and accessible work of reference. Diané Collinson is author of Fifty Major Philosophers and co-editor with Robert Wilkinson, of One Hundred Twentieth-Century Philosophers and A Biographical Dictionary of Twentieth-Century Philosophers.
Kathryn Plant is Associate Lecturer in Philosophy at the Open University. Robert Wilkinson is Senior Lecturer in Philosophy at the Open University. His latest book is Minds and Bodies (Open University Press, 1999). ROUTLEDGE KEY GUIDES Ancient History: Key Themes and Approaches Neville Morley Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings Oliver Leaman Fifty Contemporary Choreographers edited by Martha Bremser Fifty Eastern Thinkers Diané Collinson, Kathryn Plant and Robert Wilkinson Fifty Key Contemporary Thinkers John Lechte Fifty Key Thinkers in International Relations Martin Griffiths Fifty Major Economists Steven Pressman Fifty Major Philosophers Diané Collinson Key Concepts in Communication and Cultural Studies (second edition) Tim O’Sullivan, John Hartley, Danny Saunders, Martin Montgomery and John Fiske Key Concepts in Cultural Theory edited by Andrew Edgar and Peter Sedgwick Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy Oliver Leaman Key Concepts in Language and Linguistics R.Trask Key Concepts in the Philosophy of Education Christopher Winch and John Gingell Key Concepts in Popular Music Roy Shuker Key Concepts in Post-Colonial Studies Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin FIFTY EASTERN THINKERS Diané Collinson, Kathryn Plant and Robert Wilkinson London and New York First published 2000 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2002.
© 2000 Diané Collinson, Kathryn Plant and Robert Wilkinson All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data has been applied for ISBN 0-415-20284-1 (Print Edition) ISBN 0-203-00540-6 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-20624-X (Glassbook Format) CONTENTS Introduction ix Note on the Romanization of Chinese xiii Part 1: Zoroastrianism 1 Zoroaster (Zarathustra) c.1500/1000 BCE 3 Part 2: Islamic Philosophy 11 INTRODUCTION 11 Muhammad, 570–632 CE 15 Al-Kindi, 812–873 CE 21 Al-Farabi, 870–950 CE 25 Ibn Sina, 980–1037 CE 31 Al-Ghazali, 1058–1111 CE 37 Ibn Rushd, 1126–1198 CE 43 Ibn Arabi, 1165–1240 CE 50 Iqbal, 1876–1938 CE 56 Part 3: Indian Philosophy 63 INTRODUCTION 63 Vardhamana (Mahavira), 599–527 BCE 69 The Buddha, 563–483 BCE 74 Patanjali, 2nd century BCE 81 Badarayana, 2nd century BCE 87 Nagarjuna, 2nd century BCE 95 Vasubandhu, 4/5th century CE 103 Buddhaghosa, 5th century CE 114 Sankara, 788–820 CE 120 v CONTENTS Ramanuja, 1016–1100 CE 126 Madhva, 1199–1278 CE 132 Vivekananda, 1863–1902 CE 140 Gandhi, 1869–1948 CE 149 Aurobindo, 1872–1950 CE 158 Radhakrishnan, 1888–1975 CE 167 Part 4: Tibetan Philosophy 179 INTRODUCTION 179 Padmasambhava, 8th century CE 185 Milarepa, 1052–1135 CE 193 Tsong Kha Pa, 1357–1419 CE 203 Part 5: Chinese Philosophy 211 INTRODUCTION 211 Confucius (Kongfuzi) 551–479 BCE 217 Mozi (Mo Tzu) 5th century BCE 226 Mencius (Mengzi) 371–289 BCE 233 Laozi (Lao Tzu) 4th century BCE 240 Zhuangzi (Chuang Tzu) 369–286 BCE 248 Hanfeizi (Han Fei Tzu) c.230 BCE 259 Huineng (Hui-Neng) 638–713 CE 266 Fazang (Fa Tsang) 643–712 CE 272 Zhuxi (Chu Hsi) 1130–1200 CE 278 Wang Yangming (Wang Shou-Jen) 1472–1529 CE 283 Dai Zhen (Tai Chen) 1724–1777 CE 288 Kang Youwei (K’ang Yu-Wei) 1858–1927 CE 295 Xiong Shili (Hsiung Shi-Li) 1883–1968 CE 301 Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-Tung) 1893–1976 CE 307 Part 6: Korean Philosophy 319 INTRODUCTION 319 Chinull 1158–1210 CE 323 Yi Yulgok 1536–1584 CE 328 Part 7: Japanese Philosophy 335 INTRODUCTION 335 vi CONTENTS Dogen 1200–1253 CE 339 Nichiren 1222–1282 CE 347 Bankei 1622–1693 CE 358 Hakuin 1685–1769 CE 368 Nishida 1870–1945 CE 378 Suzuki 1870–1966 CE 388 Nishitani 1900–1991 CE 396 Glossary 403 General bibliography 413 Index 415 vii INTRODUCTION This book is designed to give the interested reader basic information about fifty major thinkers who belong with those several different traditions usually classed together by western culture as oriental or eastern. One of the main points that will become clear is that this classification is over-simple, since it blurs distinctions between a number of schools of thought, some as different from each other as they are from the schools of the West.
We have organized the material, with the exception of that on Islamic philosophy, under headings which are broadly geographical, and this arrangement coincides, by and large, with organization by philosophical tradition. Within each group of philosophers the material is set out chronologically. For the sake of simplicity, all dates are given in terms of the Christian calendar. Differences between them notwithstanding, there is one feature common to these traditions—at least before the modern period— which they do have in common and in which they do differ from philosophical thought in the West since the Renaissance.
This common characteristic is the non-separation of philosophical from religious endeavour. Most western philosophers of the present day would regard their subject as distinct from religion, though this would not have been the case, for example, in the Middle Ages. This distinction or outlook has appeared in eastern traditions, if at all, only very recently. The consequence is that in much of what follows the subject-matter is in many cases, of necessity, deeply informed by religious ideas.
Whilst the emphasis in what we have written is on what in western terms is the philosophical aspect of the work of the figures concerned, those within these traditions would generally regard this as a distinction marking no difference of importance. This book does not pretend to be a history of the schools of thought concerned; several libraries would be needed for that, even were all ix INTRODUCTION the primary source materials available. Rather, our chief aim has been to indicate the most influential and important lines of thought of each philosopher by close reference to major works, though we hope in addition that an indication of broad changes and constant features within each tradition will emerge from a consideration of each group of philosophers taken together. Each essay follows a common plan: a short statement describing the main thrust of the thought of the philosopher concerned; information about his life, and concise expositions of some central aspects of his thought, with cross-reference, where appropriate, to other philosophers.
These cross-references are not only to other eastern thinkers but also to philosophers in the western tradition: the same philosophical problems have often generated similar lines of response wherever they have occurred, and we have indicated the most important of these in the text. Since, as we have indicated, the thinkers concerned belong to a number of traditions, we have included brief sub-introductions at appropriate points. These include basic historical and philosophical information needed to set the scene for the group of thinkers concerned. No living philosopher has been included in this book.
At the end of each essay we have provided information that can launch the interested reader into further, more detailed study. First, there are notes to which the numbers in the text refer; second, details of the philosopher’s principal writings; third, a list of other philosophers considered in this book whose thought relates in one way or another to that of the philosopher in hand; and fourth, a list of books in English suitable for further reading. At the end of the book there is a short glossary of philosophical terms. It contains brief explanations of technical or semi-technical terms that occur a number of times in the book, where necessary in more than one language.
For the most part it has been possible to give a brief explanation of such a term with its first use in the text, but it was not feasible to repeat the explanation with each subsequent use. These terms therefore appear in bold type on the first occasion of their use in an essay, and this indicates that they are explained in the glossary at the end of the book. The glossary entries should not be taken to be either final definitions or complete explanations of the terms they describe. They are meant to provide only a first foothold for a reader not familiar with the philosophical terrain.
One of the difficulties facing anyone trying to come to grips with the philosophical traditions dealt with in this book concerns the way in which the key terms from the relevant languages have been romanized, and our choices about which version to adopt have involved x INTRODUCTION balancing a number of considerations: scholarly authority; relative familiarity and pronounceability for the English reader. We have in the main followed current scholarly usage, though where competing systems of romanization produce versions so different as not to be obviously versions of the same word, we have pointed this out in text, note or Glossary, as appropriate. This problem is especially acute with regard to Chinese. There are two complete, alternative systems for the romanization of Chinese into English: pinyin devised by the Chinese themselves, and the Wade—Giles system, of western origination.
Pinyin is now standard in English scholarly works and we give all Chinese terms in this version. However, since most the English translations of Chinese works from (roughly) the first half of the twentieth century use the Wade—Giles system or some slight variant on it, and since many of these translations are still widely used, we have given the Wade—Giles equivalent in brackets at the point in the text where the term is used for the first time. For example, in the case of the great Daoist thinker, his name is given as Zhuangzi [Chuang Tzu]. In about one third of cases, the two systems give the same romanization, and so of course in these cases the term in question occurs without an alternative version.
Additionally, to facilitate further study, we have included a list showing the pinyin and Wade—Giles romanizations for those cases where the systems produce different versions of the same terms. Words from foreign languages are printed in italics, except where they are now standardly used in English, e. Quite often, as a result of the spread of ideas and especially the diffusion of Buddhism, key terms have been translated into a number of the languages native to the philosophers concerned, and these equivalences are explained as necessary. In the text and Glossary we have used the following shorthand to indicate the language from which a given term comes: A = Arabic S = Sanskrit C = Chinese P = Pali J = Japanese T = Tibetan K = Korean In one or two cases, where one version of such a term has become standard in modern English usage and where it would be confusing not to use it, we have used this one term throughout; thus Zen is always referred to by means of this its Japanese name, even though its roots lie in Chinese and Indian thought.
These cases are noted in detail at appropriate points in the text. The linguistic origin of terms from other xi INTRODUCTION languages is indicated by giving the name of the language in full, e. Pahlavi, the language in which the Zoroastrian scriptures were recorded when given a written form.