Introduction to BIOFUELS K10607.indb 1 6/24/10 8:32:51 PM Mechanical Engineering Series Frank Kreith, Series Editor Computer Techniques in Vibration Edited by Clarence W. de Silva Distributed Generation: The Power Paradigm for the New Millennium Edited by Anne-Marie Borbely and Jan F. Kreider Elastic Waves in Composite Media and Structures: With Applications to Ultrasonic Nondestructive Evaluation Subhendu K. Datta and Arvind H.
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Desai and Tribikram Kundu Machine Elements: Life and Design Boris M. Barlam, and Frederic E. Nystrom Mathematical and Physical Modeling of Materials Processing Operations Olusegun Johnson Ilegbusi, Manabu Iguchi, and Walter E. Wahnsiedler Mechanics of Composite Materials Autar K.indb 2 6/24/10 8:32:51 PM Mechanics of Fatigue Vladimir V.
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de Silva Viscoelastic Solids Roderic S.indb 4 6/24/10 8:32:52 PM Introduction to BIOFUELS David M. Mousdale Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business K10607.indb 5 6/24/10 8:32:52 PM CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4398-1208-2 (Ebook-PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use.
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Ethanol as the Leading “First-Generation” Biofuel.2 Historical Development of Ethanol as a Fuel from Neolithic Times to the Twentieth Century.3 Oil Supply and Oil Price in the Twentieth Century: Necessity and Alternative Fuel Programs.4 Case Study 1: Brazil and Sugarcane Ethanol.5 Case Study 2: Starch-Based Ethanol in the United States.6 Thermodynamic and Environmental Aspects of Ethanol as a Biofuel.1 Net Energy Balance.2 Effects on Emissions of Greenhouse Gases and Other Pollutants. Cellulosic Ethanol as a “Second-Generation” Biofuel.2 Bioethanol and Cellulosic Ethanol: The Rise of Biomass-Based Biofuels.3 Structural and Industrial Chemistry of Cellulosic Biomass.1 Cellulose, Hemicelluloses, and Lignin.2 Lignocellulose as a Biochemical Resource.3 Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Materials.1 Physical and Chemical Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass.2 Acid Hydrolysis of Pretreated Lignocellulosic Biomass.4 Cellulases: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, and Biotechnology.1 Enzymology of Cellulose Degradation by Cellulases.2 Cellulases in Lignocellulosic Feedstock Processing.indb 7 6/24/10 8:32:53 PM viii Contents 2.3 Molecular Biology and Biotechnology of Cellulase Production.1 Physiological Regulation of Cellulase Production.2 Regulatory Genes Involved in Cellulase Production.3 New-Generation Cellulases.4 Novel Molecular Features of Cellulases.5 Hemicellulases: New Horizons in Energy Biotechnology.1 A Multiplicity of Hemicellulases.2 Hemicellulases in the Processing of Lignocellulosic Biomass.3 Molecular Biology of Hemicellulases.6 Lignin-Degrading Enzymes as Aids to Saccharification.7 Commercial Choices of Cellulosic Feedstocks for Ethanol Production.8 Biotechnology and Platform Technologies for Cellulosic Ethanol. Microbiology of Cellulosic Ethanol Production I: Yeasts.2 Traditional Ethanologenic Yeasts.3 Metabolic Engineering of Yeasts for Cellulosic Ethanol.1 Increased Pentose Utilization by Ethanologenic Yeasts by Genetic Manipulation with Yeast Genes for Xylose Metabolism via Xylitol.2 Increased Pentose Utilization by Ethanologenic Yeasts by Genetic Manipulation with Genes for Xylose Isomerization.3 Engineering Arabinose Utilization by Ethanologenic Yeasts.4 Comparison of Industrial and Laboratory Yeast Strains for Ethanol Production.5 Improved Ethanol Production by Naturally Pentose-Utilizing Yeasts.4 Toward the Perfect Yeast Ethanologen?.1 “Omic” Analyses of Yeast Metabolism during Ethanol Production.2 Stress Responses in Yeast Ethanologens.indb 8 6/24/10 8:32:54 PM Contents ix 3. Microbiology of Cellulosic Ethanol Production II: Bacteria.2 Assembling Gene Arrays in Bacteria for Ethanol Production.1 Metabolic Routes in Bacteria for Sugar Metabolism and Ethanol Formation.2 Genetic and Metabolic Engineering of Bacteria for Cellulosic Ethanol Production.1 Recombinant Escherichia coli: Lineages and Metabolic Capabilities.2 Engineering Zymomonas mobilis for Xylose and Arabinose Metabolism.3 Development of Klebsiella Strains for Ethanol Production.4 Other Bacterial Species.3 Thermophilic Species and Cellulosome Bioproduction Technologies.4 “Designer” Cells and Synthetic Organisms.
Biochemical Engineering of Cellulosic Ethanol.2 Case Study: The Iogen Corporation Process with Wheat Straw.3 Biomass Substrate Pretreatment Strategies.6 Other Large-Scale Agricultural and Forestry Biomass Feedstocks.4 Fermentation Media and the Very High Gravity Concept.1 Fermentation Media for Ethanol Production.2 High-Concentration Media Developed for Alcohol Fermentations.5 Fermentor Design and Novel Fermentor Technologies.1 Continuous Fermentations for Ethanol Production.2 Fed-Batch Fermentations.indb 9 6/24/10 8:32:54 PM x Contents 5.3 Immobilized Yeast and Bacterial Cell Production Designs.4 Contamination Events and Buildup in Fuel Ethanol Plants.6 Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation and Consolidated Bioprocessing.7 Downstream Processing and By-Products.1 Ethanol Recovery from Fermented Broths.2 Continuous Ethanol Recovery from Fermentors.3 Solid By-Products from Ethanol Fermentations. The Economics of Fuel Ethanol.2 Market Forces and Incentives.1 The Impact of Oil Prices on the Future of Biofuels after 1980.2 Production Price, Taxation, and Incentives in the Market Economy.3 Cost Models for Fuel Ethanol Production.1 Early Benchmarking Studies of Corn and Lignocellulosic Ethanol in the United States.1 Corn-Derived Ethanol in 1978.2 Wheat-Straw-Derived Ethanol in 1978.3 Fuel Ethanol from Sugarcane Molasses.4 Farm-Scale Ethanol Production.2 Corn Ethanol in the 1980s: Rising Industrial Ethanol Prices and the Development of the Incentive Culture.3 Western Europe in the Mid-1980s: Assessments of Biofuels Programs Made at a Time of Falling Real Oil Prices.4 Brazilian Sugarcane Ethanol in 1985: After the First Decade of the PROÁLCOOL Program to Substitute for Imported Oil. Corn and Biomass Ethanol Economics in the Mid-1990s.6 Case Study: The View from Sweden.7 Subsequent Assessments of Lignocellulosic Ethanol in Europe and the United States.1 Complete Process Cost Models.2 Reviews of “Gray” Literature Estimates and Economic Analyses.indb 10 6/24/10 8:32:55 PM Contents xi 6.4 Pilot Plant and Industrial Extrapolations for Cellulosic Ethanol.1 Near-Future Projections for Cellulosic Ethanol Production Costs.2 Short- to Medium-Term Technical Process Improvements and Their Anticipated Economic Impacts.3 Bioprocess Economics: A Chinese Perspective.5 Governmental and Macroeconomic Factors.1 Mandatory Biofuels Targets.2 Impact of Fuel Economy on Ethanol Demand for Gasoline Blends.3 Biofuels Pricing in the Era of Carbon Taxation. Advanced Biofuels: The Widening Portfolio of Alternatives to Ethanol.2 Biobutanol and ABE.3 Bacterial Production of C3–C7 Alcohols and Related Compounds.5 The MixAlco Process.1 The Hydrogen Economy and Fuel Cell Technologies.2 Bioproduction of Gases: Methane and H2 as Products of Anaerobic Digestion.1 Heterotrophic Microbes Producing H2 by Hydrogenase Activity.2 Nitrogen-Fixing Microorganisms.3 Development of “Dark” H2 Production Systems.3 Production of H2 by Photosynthetic Organisms.7 Microbial Fuel Cells: Eliminating the Middlemen of Energy Carriers.
Chemically Produced Biofuels.2 Biodiesel: Chemistry and Production Processes.1 Vegetable Oils and Chemically Processed Biofuels.indb 11 6/24/10 8:32:55 PM xii Contents 8.2 Biodiesel Composition and Production Processes.4 Energetics of Biodiesel Production and Effects on Greenhouse Gas Emissions.5 Case Study 1: Hydrogenated Plant Oils and “Green Diesel”.6 Case Study 2: Enzymes for Biodiesel Production.3 Fischer–Tropsch Diesel: Chemical Biomass–Liquid Fuel Transformations.1 The Renascence of an Old Chemistry for Biomass-Based Fuels?.2 Economics and Environmental Impacts of FT Diesel.4 Biodiesel from Microalgae and Microbes.1 Marine and Aquatic Biotechnology.5 Chemical Conversions of Glycerol Produced by Fermentation.6 Chemical Routes for the Production of Monooxygenated C6 Liquid Fuels from Biomass Carbohydrates.7 Biomethanol and Biodimethylether.8 Chemistry and the Emergence of the Hydrogen Economy. Sustainability of Biofuels Production.2 Delivering Biomass Feedstocks for Cellulosic Ethanol Production: The Logistics of a New Industry.1 Upstream Factors: Biomass Collection and Delivery.2 Limitations Imposed by Land Availability and Land Use.3 Sustainable Development and Biomass Production.1 Definitions, Semantics, and Analysis.2 Case Study: Sustainability of Brazilian Sugarcane Ethanol.3 Future Horizons for Cane Sugar Ethanol.4 Bioenergy Crops and Genetically Manipulated Plants.1 Engineering Resistance Traits for Biotic and Abiotic Stresses.2 Bioengineering Increased Crop Yield.indb 12 6/24/10 8:32:56 PM Contents xiii 9.3 Optimizing Traits for Energy Crops Intended for Biofuel Production.4 Genetic Engineering of Dual-Use Food Plants and Dedicated Energy Crops. Biofuels as Products of Integrated Bioprocesses (Biorefineries).2 The Biorefinery Concept.3 Biorefinery Entry Routes.1 Fermentation of Biomass-Derived Substrates.4 Biorefinery Pivotal Products.1 Case Study 1: Succinic Acid.2 Case Study 2: Xylitol and Rare Sugars as Fine Chemicals.3 Case Study 3: Glycerol.5 Central Substrates and Biorefinery Flexibility.6 When Will the Biobased Economy Be Possible and When Will It Be Unavoidable?.indb 14 6/24/10 8:32:56 PM Preface How to Get the Most from This Book There are many excellent reasons for wanting to know more about biofuels. You may be—and I hope many readers are—a chemist who sees biological methodologies as natural extensions to established synthetic methods that can offer radically new perspectives and opportunities for chiral molecules and “smart” catalysts.
But you also may not know that chemistry offers unique routes to biofuels. From a life sciences background, biofuels are a signpost to the future of bio- based industries—with biomanufacturing and bioproduction—and these represent new industrial sectors for the student of contemporary economics. The shifting energy landscape of the twenty-first century is both worrying and intellectually challenging. Renewable energy technologies are in high demand; are biofuels part of that scientific portfolio that might bring “energy independence” and “energy security,” revitalize rural infrastructures, and wean the developed world off its “addiction” to oil? Chemical engineers will already appreciate that industrial-scale products require a massive infrastructure of hardware that is seen in petrochemical refineries.
But what will be used as inputs to future biorefineries?