Running head: EQUITABLE AND MOTIVATIONAL HOMEWORK PRACTICES 1 How Homework Can Foster Equity and Motivation in the Classroom: A Closer Look at What Effective and Inclusive Homework Entails Antonina M. Moreno A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Master of Arts Degree California State University, San Marcos Spring 2017 EQUITABLE AND MOTIVATIONAL HOMEWORK PRACTICES 2 Thesis Abstract Homework practices and policies vary widely throughout education. The research on homework varies just as widely without conclusive findings regarding which homework practices are effective or inclusive for student learning. This case study explored two teachers who employed different homework practices and policies and what effect these homework implementations had on student motivation and participation when completing assignments.
Both teachers were first interviewed to find what their practices, policies, and expectations were when it came to homework in their respective classes. Students’ grades were then collected to determine whether each homework implementation was effective and inclusive. Finally, student interviews were conducted to find what students’ expectations were of homework and what they found to be motivating when completing assignments. The data reported that a no homework policy wherein students are given time in class to complete assignments, but have the option to complete or refine these assignments at home was more effective for all students and inclusive for most social groups.
Furthermore, student interviews revealed that they preferred the extrinsic motivation of completion grades and teacher feedback when completing assignments. Teachers need to keep in mind their students’ expectations and needs when implementing assignments to ensure successful learning and participation of all students. Keywords: equity, feedback, inclusive, independent practice, homework, motivation EQUITABLE AND MOTIVATIONAL HOMEWORK PRACTICES 3 Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to thank my professors at California State University, San Marcos. They not only contributed to the completion of my thesis, but they also helped me pursue my goal of being a lifelong learner.
I especially would like to thank my chair, Dr. Daniels, who kept me on track, edited my writing without complaint, and was readily available with words of encouragement and advise. I would also like to thank all my colleagues. Without their thought-provoking conversation, insights, and support, I would not have had the courage to further my own education.
A special thank you to my teacher participants who let me into their classrooms without hesitation and offered invaluable support. Thank you to my parents, Antonina and William Ellerbeck, who have always instilled the value of education and supported me in all my endeavors. Moreover, their love for their grandchildren allowed me to spend numerous hours locked away researching and writing. My siblings and I are so fortunate to have them as the ultimate educators.
Foremost, I would like to thank my husband, Mario Moreno. Without him pushing me intellectually and supporting my passion for education, I would not have the determination nor time to be a student, educator, and mother. He is a remarkable husband and an amazing father to our beautiful children. I am eternally grateful.
EQUITABLE AND MOTIVATIONAL HOMEWORK PRACTICES 4 Table of Contents Abstract. 2 List of Figures. 8 Statement of the Problem. 9 Purpose of the Study.
12 Preview of the Methodology. 14 Significance of the Study. 15 Definition of Terms. 18 Inequality in Education.
20 Student Needs with Homework. 23 Adolescents’ Development and Motivation. 29 EQUITABLE AND MOTIVATIONAL HOMEWORK PRACTICES 5 Participants. 34 Data processing / Analysis.
39 Data Presentation and Analysis. 40 Differing Homework Practices. 40 Homework as it Relates to Learning. 42 Inclusivity in Homework.
45 Motivation and Expectations of Adolescent Students. 67 Homework as it Relates to Learning. 67 Inclusivity in Homework. 69 EQUITABLE AND MOTIVATIONAL HOMEWORK PRACTICES 6 Adolescents’ Motivation.
76 Appendix A: Email to Teachers. 82 Appendix B: Teacher Consent Forms. 83 Appendix C: Parent Consent Forms. 85 Appendix D: Student Assent Forms.
87 EQUITABLE AND MOTIVATIONAL HOMEWORK PRACTICES 7 List of Figures Figure 1. Homework Grades VS. Class A: Grade Comparison by Ethnicity …………………………………… 42 Figure 3. Class B: Grade Comparison by Ethnicity …………………………………… 43 Figure 4.
Class A: Grade Comparison by Gender …………………………………. Class B: Grade Comparison by Gender ……………………………………. Class A: Grade Comparison by Learner Type ……………………………. Class B: Grade Comparison by Learner Type …………………………….
Average Homework Participation Rates ………………………. Students’ Perspective: Ideal Time Spent on Homework ………………. Students’ Perspective: Ideal Homework Requirements ……………………. Students’ Perspective: Ideal Motivation ………………………………….
Students’ Perspective: Ideal Grading Practices ……………………………. Students’ Perspective: Ideal Feedback for Homework ………………. Students’ Perspective: Ideal Resources Needed for Homework …………… 54 Figure 15. Students’ Perspective: Expectations for Homework ………………….
Students’ Perspective: Disadvantages of Homework ……………………… 56 Figure 17. Students’ Perspective: Advantages of Homework ………………………… 56 EQUITABLE AND MOTIVATIONAL HOMEWORK PRACTICES 8 Chapter 1 Definition of Problem As education focuses more and more on equity and access, the question of whether sending assignments home with students is equitable enters every educator’s mind in some form or another. Additionally, the very topic of homework often triggers strong – often dichotomous – feelings in educators, students, and parents alike. And while there is an overabundance of research on the various facets of homework, there are mixed results on its benefits.
Even still, the dilemma becomes that assigning homework assumes that all students have the same quantity and quality of time, resources, and support when completing assignments outside of the classroom. Homework completion becomes substantially problematic as students enter adolescence. Balfanz, Herzog and Mac Iver (2007) explained that the challenges students are most likely to face during adolescence than at any other age, especially those in high-poverty areas, revolve around the issues of familial obligations and different types of peer pressures. While an adolescent’s outside pressures, distractions, and lack of consequential thinking become more prevalent, their academic workload increases.
Daniels (2011) points out that while a student in elementary school has only one teacher assigning homework, a student in middle or high school may have between four to eight teachers all of which may assign a significant amount of homework. This increase in workload comes at an untimely point in a student’s cognitive development when adolescents’ ability to make logical decisions and utilize consequential thinking is not yet fully developed (Chamberlin & Chambers, 2012). As students are required to begin thinking about their futures (college, career, etc.), the stakes that education plays in one's life becomes high. This means that students are required to EQUITABLE AND MOTIVATIONAL HOMEWORK PRACTICES 9 take into consideration every academic decision they make and weigh the consequences that these decisions may have on their future academics, career, family, etc.
Given the point in cognitive development that middle school and high school students are at, educators may be asking students to fulfill certain tasks that are not accessible for most adolescents, one of these tasks being certain types or amounts of homework. When students are unable to or forget to complete an assignment, this can be viewed as personal failure and potentially alter a student’s academic performance and motivation in a class (Trautwein, Schnyder, Niggli, Neumann, & Ludtke, 2009). In other words, it is important to keep in mind that all students come with different backgrounds and at different points of development which requires teachers to be mindful of what they demand of their students during and after class in order to maintain students’ motivation to learn (Haas, 2008). Statement of the Problem Homework is a tradition that transcends the education system as we know it today.
There are many different philosophies and purposes behind homework that different teachers have taken on and will practice throughout their careers (Brock, Lapp, Flood, Fisher, & Tao Han, 2007). Some use homework as an extension to a lesson or as a way for the student to practice a certain skill they presumably learned in class. Other teachers assign homework because it is synonymous with traditional schooling. Many are educated with homework being a part of their own school experience and, therefore, it has become embedded in their perception of what makes a successful teacher and learner.
Yet as research in education is explored and published, many of these philosophies and practices come into question (Cooper, 2001). Many educators advocate assigning homework because they feel they are requiring students to experience a similar obligation to that of the workplace and they, therefore, are EQUITABLE AND MOTIVATIONAL HOMEWORK PRACTICES 10 teaching the students the “reality” of being a functioning citizen of the workforce. This philosophy fails to examine how many students, particularly English Learners and low socioeconomic status students, are at a disadvantage and already exposed to a different reality (Balfanz, Herzog, & Mac Iver, 2007). Balfanz et al.
also explain that English Learners are more likely to become disengaged and, consequently, dropout of school. This may be due to the fact that many of the “unique needs of these older EL students are even more overlooked than those of their younger peers” and so they are not as linguistically prepared to complete independent assignments as their peers (Gandara, Rumberger, Maxwell-Jolly, & Callahan as cited in Olson & Land, 2007, p. When assigning these students daily homework, many of them become discouraged as they are without the time and resources to complete the homework independently and successfully. This goes hand-in-hand with the next reason behind assigning homework, which is the anecdotal experience that when students complete their homework, it is assumed they are illustrating an effort and potential interest in being successful in a classroom.
Because of this, for many educators, homework becomes a personal thing for many educators wherein the teacher feels slighted when a student neglects the assignments and gratified by those who do complete their work, inviting inequities in grading policies and feedback that become subjective rather than equitable. Inconsistencies in grading and feedback may also stem from lack of time in the teacher’s workload as well. Given that secondary teachers have large quantities of students’ needs to keep in mind and meet when creating and grading homework assignments, time and resources for the teacher becomes an issue, which directly affects the student's motivation to put forth effort in their assignments. This can be seen in Csikszentmihalyi’s Flow Theory when he explains that a EQUITABLE AND MOTIVATIONAL HOMEWORK PRACTICES 11 person must have a reasonable balance between the challenge and their skills and people must receive immediate and specific feedback in order to maintain happiness, which leads to motivation (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).
When a student lacks the motivation to complete homework, this also has the potential to negatively affect the classroom environment. Without an objective feedback process and mindful creation of assignments, a teacher becomes much more subjective with inconsistent expectations. While these thoughts and inconsistencies may not be verbally addressed, they do not go unnoticed in the classroom and often put the teacher’s credibility into question. Furthermore, assigning homework can be problematic given the stage of development that the brain is at for an adolescent.
Many adolescents in middle and high school have not developed their cerebrum, which is responsible for decision making (Chamberlin & Chambers, 1991). This means that students will often lack the prioritizing skills that educators often demand of them. They are expected to put aside their extracurricular activities and social lives for the 30 minutes of homework that each of their four to eight teachers assigned each day. It is not practical and may not meet the socio-cultural-economic needs of the students (Chamberlin & Chambers, 1991).
When a student receives homework that is necessary to the lesson and learning and has been well-thought out by the educator, there is investment and motivation to learn and be challenged. A student will, consequently, go beyond what they even thought they were capable of and maximize their thinking skills for this teacher. It is not difficult to assess when an educator has thought out their assignments and lessons and deserves credibility.
