Chapter 6: The Later Development of Bilingualism Failure: In the US, one in 20 children become bilingual following foreign language instruction. it: Reasons for Second Language Learning 1) Societal Reasons 1> Assimilationist/ subtractive, ex.: UK, US 2> Preserve/ restore, ex.: Ireland, Irish vs. English 3> Reduce conflict, increase harmony, ex.: Canada, French vs. English 4> Economic and trade reasons 5S> Interaction across continents 6> Provide access to information and hence power 7> Promoting intercultural understanding and peace 2) Individual Reasons www.uk/700reasons/700reasons.aspx 1> Cultural awareness 2> Cognitive development 3> Career Development.
Formal/Informal Second Language Learning. The Age Factor: more input, longer length of exposure Language Loss in Children. Individual differences: attitudes and motivation Integrative motivation: A wish to identify with or join another language group Instrumental motivation: Learning a language for useful purposes 5. Identity and second language acquisition Chapter 7: Bilingualism and Cognition 1 Historically, bilinguals were regarded as having a relatively lower IQ than monolinguals.
Research on the relationship between intelligence and bilingualism has moved from a period of investigating ‘detrimental effects’ to a current focus on the additive effects given by bilingualism. The ownership of two languages does not interfere with efficient thinking. On the contrary bilinguals who have two well developed languages tend to share cognitive advantages. Bilinguals have advantages on certain thinking dimensions, particularly in divergent thinking, creativity, early metalinguistic awareness and communicative sensitivity.
There are likely to be many other cognitive skills on which there are no real differences between bilinguals and monolinguals. Research on the metalinguaistic advantages of bilinguals is strong, and suggests bilinguals are aware of their languages at an early age, separating form from meaning, and having reading readiness earlier than monolinguals. Chapter 18: Bilingualism and Bilingual Education: Ideology, Identity, and Empowerment Ideologies of Bilingualism Pluralist- individuals have the right to use two or more languages in a variety of settings (home, school, work, etc.) Supported by politicians through grants and funding. State and official bureaus are expected to operate bilingually.
Gained popularity in the ‘60s- challenges assimilationist philosophy. “Tossed Salad” metaphor- different languages and cultures can exist in the same environment without one having to be dominant. Potential problems: impracticality- individual choice is not necessarily equal choice, no way to level the playing field to make sure all languages and cultures have a fair shot to thrive. Civic- expects language minorities to adopt majority culture, language, and values in public settings while allowing freedom in the private values of individuals.
No funding or bilingual support provided from public sources. Assimilation- language is seen as a private sphere in which the state has a right to intervene. Minority languages are seen as potentially divisive and in contrast to national loyalty. It is expected that immigrants will adopt dominant culture and retain no vestiges of heritage language or culture.
Most prevalent reaction to immigration in the US: “melting pot” ideal. Privileges equality over diversity. Different types of assimilation: cultural, structural, marital, identificational, attitudinal, behavioral, social and civic. May be explicit, implied, or concealed.
Ethnist- encourages or forces immigrants to give up their heritage language and culture for the dominant one. In reality most immigrants experience both a degree of assimilation and preservation of their heritage. Although assimilation is often the expressed wish of countries in regard to immigrants, many times social conditions prevent this and forces immigrants in to segregated communities and treats them as “foreign” rather than as citizens. Identity is not fixed and is constantly changing.
Often it is created by comparing oneself to others. Language only represents one facet of these multi identities. In order to preserve minority ethnic identity, it is necessary to have some boundaries between it and the majority culture. Functional theory- society is in an equilibrium and this should be maintained.
Therefore any change regarding minority culture rights should be implemented in a slow, smooth transition with all parts of society working together. Conflict theory- conflict is a natural and inevitable result when two cultural groups co-exist in an unequal power balance. Change can only happen through struggle and dispute. Bilingual education must be viewed through the lens of power, ideology and politics.
Empowerment is key for changing situations for minority cultures- education can help, but legal, social, cultural, economic and political events are also factors. In the US, power imbalances are often reinforced and acted out in the classroom. Chapter 19: Bilingualism in the Modern World In today’s world bilingualism is increasingly more economically valuable. Occupational bilingualism is more necessary as the communication world shrinks.
(Tourism, marketing, retail, airlines, interpreting, translating, government officials, etc.) However in such cases there is often “prestigious bilingualism” and bilingualism that marks people as being of a lower status. Tourism can create contact between cultures and languages, but it can also “pollute” them by being a means to spread English monolingualism and ideals. Mass media, especially television, can contribute to multiculturalism, however it is dominated by Anglo-American culture and the English language since the US is the largest television industry in the world. This can be good when it creates additive bilingualism, however it can also create subtractive bilingualism.
It can also be a means of preserving minority language, if the effort is made to do so. Information technology often promotes the rapid spread of English, but it can also aid minority language education. It is important for language preservation that appropriate terminology for technology is developed in the minor language. The internet can promote bilingualism and conversations across continents as well as provide a space for people to try on new multicultural identities.
(See website for bilingualism p.) Bilinguals have language competence, the ability to cross boundaries, and can often act as brokers between monolingual cultures. As different countries become more economically and politically important, the list of languages with economic potential grows. However, for many minority language bilinguals their language may have limited economic potential. Often economically wealthy languages have a better chance of survival than economically impoverished ones.
The economic importance of languages and the path to positive change can be summed up in the following diagram from p. ed More people leaming a language Increased motivation to leam and use a language Greater perception of the usefuless and status of a language services ina language Adapted from Strubell (2001) Testing Your Grammar Revised Edition a 7 — “ an Revised Edition Susan M. Reinhart Ann Arbor THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN PRESS To my mother and father Copyright © by the University of Michigan 2002 All rights reserved ISBN 0-472-08858-0 Published in the United States of America by The University of Michigan Press Manufactured in the United States of America 2012 2011 2010 2009 6 3 4°53 No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, or otherwise, without the written permission of the publisher. ISBN 978-0-472-08858-4 Acknowledgments I am grateful to the following people for their contributions to the first edition of this text: John Haugen, Taco Homburg, Devon Woods, and Paula Goodfellow commented on parts of the manu- script and provided insights into testing in general; Karen Adams reviewed the manuscript and suggested important changes and additions; and a number of my students significantly improved the manuscript by asking a lot of questions and offering helpful comments.
For help with the second edition, I especially wish to thank my colleagues at the English Language Institute, University of Michigan, for providing a stimulating and supportive work environment. Thanks in particular to Brenda Imber for keeping me company in the North University Building in the evenings and on weekends. My special thanks to Chris Feak, who has not only inspired me professionally over the years but has also solved my computer problems more times than I can count. I am indebted to two special people at the University of Michigan Press: Kelly Sippell, for mostly saying yes, and Chris Milton, who, along with Kelly, has worked endless hours on my texts.
Finally, I would like to express my deepest appreciation to Dr. John Bordie of the University of Texas at Austin, who some years ago encouraged my first attempts at materials development. I will always be grateful for his support. a ~ ~S eae 7 @ ine AP Q iss a te = Se =*) 4 ane — 7 Toke 2 $46 Get ees |'Peeeh ¥ — - Pad ire gr: SS OPT N® * eS eyes FLAG bbe eus, ade = Paha ( -Lf = ets pan “124% <ine +> ni =.
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— 48 7 leroary quite - > Introduction Testing Your Grammar was written for high-intermediate and advanced students of English as a second language. The text was first envisioned as a series of practice grammar tests for students taking English language proficiency exams. In the end, however, it developed into a far more comprehensive review of grammatical structures of English. The text covers major aspects of English grammar, including count and noncount nouns, agreement, verb tense, modals, compar- isons, and complex clauses, that students need to manage in order to improve their proficiency in English.
Each unit contains an explanation of the grammar points presented and a number of exercises to help students monitor their progress. For this new edition, Testing Your Grammar has undergone many changes. Some of the units have been enlarged or significantly modified. Mistakes in the text have been corrected and explanations reworked so that they are clearer and easier to read.
Examples have been added. The order of some of the units has been changed to improve the flow of the text. Students wrote to request that ex- planations be included in the answer key. These have been added.
There are eighteen grammar units in Testing Your Grammar. The basic format of each unit remains unchanged. First, there is a brief pretest. By means of the pretest, students can start to assess their control of the grammar points covered in the unit.