Washington University Global Studies Law Review Volume 9 Issue 1 2010 War on Terrorism: Self Defense, Operation Enduring Freedom, and the Legality of U. Drone Attacks in Pakistan Sikander Ahmed Shah University of Michigan Follow this and additional works at: https://openscholarship.edu/law_globalstudies Part of the Military, War, and Peace Commons Recommended Citation Sikander Ahmed Shah, War on Terrorism: Self Defense, Operation Enduring Freedom, and the Legality of U. Drone Attacks in Pakistan, 9 WASH.edu/law_globalstudies/vol9/iss1/4 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Law School at Washington University Open Scholarship. It has been accepted for inclusion in Washington University Global Studies Law Review by an authorized administrator of Washington University Open Scholarship.
For more information, please contact digital@wumail. WAR ON TERRORISM: SELF DEFENSE, OPERATION ENDURING FREEDOM, AND THE LEGALITY OF U. DRONE ATTACKS IN PAKISTAN SIKANDER AHMED SHAH TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND. INTERNATIONAL LAW GOVERNING THE USE OF FORCE IN SELF DEFENSE AND THE U.
WAR IN AFGHANISTAN. International Law of Self Defense and Terrorism. The Legality of U. Attacks on Afghanistan.
OCCUPATION OF AFGHANISTAN: ISAF AND OPERATION ENDURING FREEDOM. THE LEGALITY OF U. DRONE ATTACKS IN PAKISTAN. Justifications for the Drone Attacks in Relation to the Right of Self Defense.
Drone Attacks in Pakistan and the Customary International Law of Self Defense. 127 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Few would deny the fact that Pakistan faces a contemporary existential threat.1 The writ of the federal government in various parts of the country is becoming increasingly non-existent.2 The inception of parallel judicial systems3 coupled with the materialization of accords between the federal J. Cum Laude, University of Michigan Ann Arbor; Assistant Professor of Law and Policy, LUMS University, Lahore, Pakistan. Special thanks to Lubna Anwar and Savera Qazi (LL.
2011) for research assistance., FOX News Sunday with Chris Wallace (FOX News Channel television broadcast Mar. 29, 2009) (interview by Chris Wallace with Robert Gates, Sec‘y of Def.), transcript available at http://www.html; Clinton Cites Al-Qaeda as Key Target in Obama Plan, NEWS, Apr. Pakistan: Negotiating Away the Writ of the State, STRATFOR GLOBAL INTELLIGENCE, Feb.com/analysis/20090216_pakistan_negotiating_away_writ_state. Khalid Aziz, Op-Ed., Has Waziristan Stabilized?, NEWS, Apr.pk/editorial_detail.
77 Washington University Open Scholarship 78 WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY GLOBAL STUDIES LAW REVIEW [VOL. 9:77 government and Pakistan-based Taliban militias responsible for heinous crimes and acts of terrorism is alarming.4 Equally distressing is the determination that these accords are, in actuality, acts of desperation on behalf of the government that further dilute effective control over national territory.5 From a human rights perspective, the government is condoning reprehensible and criminal modes of conduct in the heartland of Pakistan by bowing down to radicals, who subscribe to a contorted and purist version of religious law and belief system. Such outsourcing of judicial function, executive authority, and enforcement is in complete contravention of the Constitution of Pakistan and classical Shariah (Islamic) law.6 There are doctrinal complexities concerning jurisdiction and sovereignty in the volatile frontier region of Pakistan that borders Afghanistan, as a sizeable parcel of the territory is semi-autonomous as affirmed under the 1973 Constitution of Pakistan.7 Numerous Pashtun tribes retain administrative control of this territory and matters have historically been regulated under the Pashtunwali code,8 which has been affected by the Salafi,9 Wahhabi,10 and Deobandi11 revivalist movements. This phenomenon, coupled with a lack of sustainable development, is directly responsible for the recent and horrible repression of civilians, the perpetuation of intolerance, and the fostering of militancy in the region.
Historical contingencies are also to blame for the radicalization process that has continued unabated in the tribal belt. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan during the height of the Cold War turned into a proxy war 4. Zardari Details Swat Peace Deal, BBC NEWS, Feb.uk/2/hi/ south_asia/7894581. Nasim Zehra, Swat Deal: An Act of Desperation?, NEWS, Feb.pk/daily_detail.
See Qazis’ Verdict Can’t be Challenged in SC, NEWS, Apr.pk/top_story_detail. But see Akhtar Amin, Qazi Courts to Work Under High Court: NWFP AG, DAILY TIMES, Apr.asp?page= 2009\04\22\story_22-4-2009_pg7_1. See also PAK. See generally AL- MAWARDI, THE ORDINANCES OF GOVERNMENT (Wafaa H., 2006); IBN TAIMIYYA, ON PUBLIC AND PRIVATE LAW 11–35 (Omar A.
Pashtunwali is the code of conduct and the unwritten customary law of the tribal Pashtun community based on the principles of hospitality, honor, and revenge. See NEAMATOLLAH NOJUMI, THE RISE OF THE TALIBAN IN AFGHANISTAN: MASS MOBILIZATION, CIVIL WAR, AND THE FUTURE OF THE REGION 224 (2002); see MARTIN EWANS, AFGHANISTAN: A NEW HISTORY 5 (2001). CHOUEIRI, ISLAMIC FUNDAMENTALISM 37–39 (1990); BEVERLY MILTON- EDWARDS, ISLAM AND VIOLENCE IN THE MODERN ERA 17 (2006). See DAVID BUKAY, FROM MUHAMMAD TO BIN LADEN: RELIGIOUS AND IDEOLOGICAL SOURCES OF THE HOMICIDE BOMBERS PHENOMENON 202–05 (2007); see PETER MARSDEN, THE TALIBAN: WAR, RELIGION AND THE NEW ORDER IN AFGHANISTAN 73 (1998).
See MARSDEN, supra note 10, at 79–81.edu/law_globalstudies/vol9/iss1/4 2010] WAR ON TERRORISM 79 fought between the two world superpowers,12 resulting in massive flows of money and modern weaponry into Pakistan and Afghanistan without any real accountability.13 Subsequent to the Soviet war, Afghanistan was plagued with incessant civil unrest and turmoil, a constant state of political instability, and a complete absence of law and order.14 The United States, after accomplishing its objective of driving the Soviets out of Afghanistan, completely withdrew all support and aid to Afghanistan, and consequently, necessary international assistance for development and rebuilding the devastated war-torn nation did not materialize.15 Afghanistan‘s neighbors actively intruded in its internal affairs to pursue their own objectives.16 Such intrusion often proved detrimental for Afghanistan and was primarily a product of regional power dynamics. For instance, the Shia community, other ethnic minorities, and Persian speakers in Afghanistan enjoyed the patronage of Iran,17 whereas Pakistan, along with Saudi Arabia, backed the majority Pashtun community of Afghanistan.18 The Pashtuns primarily adhere to a conservative version of the Sunni faith and also compose the second largest ethnic group in Pakistan.19 The Pakistani establishment, including its armed forces and intelligence agencies, strongly supported conservative Sunni radicals and the Taliban movement to gain putative strategic depth through a subordinated Afghanistan and by preempting the formation of a hostile Indian-Afghanistan consortium.20 The Taliban movement was also seen as 12. See generally GEORGE CRILE, CHARLIE WILSON‘S WAR: THE EXTRAORDINARY STORY OF THE LARGEST COVERT OPERATION IN HISTORY (2003); Parvez Ahmed, Sacred Violence: Religion and Terror: Terror in the Name of Islam-Unholy War, Not Jihad, 39 CASE W. See KURT LOHBECK, HOLY WAR, UNHOLY VICTORY: EYEWITNESS TO THE CIA‘S SECRET WAR IN AFGHANISTAN 182–90 (1993).
See Ahmed, supra note 12, at 781. LOHBECK, supra note 13, at 276. See TALIBAN AND THE AFGHAN TURMOIL: THE ROLE OF USA, PAKISTAN, IRAN, AND CHINA 82 (Sreedhar et al., 1997); Timur Kocaoğlu, Could Afghanistan Be a Key to Asian Co-operation and Security?, 5 PERCEPTIONS 106, 110 (2001), available at http://www.php; AHMED RASHID, JIHAD: THE RISE OF MILITANT ISLAM IN CENTRAL ASIA 224 (2002); MARSDEN, supra note 10, at 53, 145. THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGION AND WAR 1 (Gabriel Palmer-Fernandez ed., 2004); HISTORY AND ETHNICITY 233 (Elizabeth Tonkin et al., 1989); Ali Khan, A Civil War: Obama’s Gift to Pakistan, Aljazeera.com, June 22, 2009, http://aljazeera.com/news/articles/39/A_civil_war_ Obamas_gift_to_Pakistan.html; Ahmed Rashid, Pakistan’s Explicit Pro-Pashtun Policy and Pro- Taliban Support, ANALYST, June 21, 2000, http://www.
Steven Simon & Jonathan Stevenson, Afghanistan: How Much Is Enough?, SURVIVAL: GLOBAL POLITICS & STRATEGY, Oct. 2009, at 47, 48–49 (2009), available at http://www. Washington University Open Scholarship 80 WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY GLOBAL STUDIES LAW REVIEW [VOL. 9:77 a weapon which, if effectively utilized, would bleed India in the troubled Kashmir region located a few hundred kilometers from Afghanistan, where India was committing grave human rights violations in quelling a genuine freedom struggle of independence of the Kashmiri people.21 The Taliban movement itself was conceived in the frontier regions of Pakistan and Afghanistan in mushrooming religious schools originally funded by the United States to fight the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.22 These madaris (schools) proved attractive for destitute, impressionable young men because they were provided with basic sustenance, but they were also unfortunately indoctrinated with fanatical ideologies premised on scriptural literalism that transformed many of them into radicals and extremists.23 Soon civil war engulfed Afghanistan, and eventually the Taliban established effective control over most of the country.24 Initially, they were welcomed by the majority of Afghans because they were able to provide some level of stability and security to the country.25 However, this regime became increasingly repressive and fascist as it systematically violated all norms of universal human rights.26 Yet, in effect, the Taliban regime was condoned and tolerated by the majority of the international community and especially by the United States.27 It was only subsequent to the events of September 11, 2001, once the United States embarked on the War on Terror, that the averred heroic freedom-fighting Mujahedeen, credited for defeating the Soviet Union and triggering its disintegration, became formally reclassified by the United States and many Western nations as an integral component of the global terrorist network and the new enemy of the twenty-first century.28 org/publications/survival/survival-2009/year-2009-issue-5/afghanistan-how-much-is-enough (follow ―Get full article here‖ hyperlink; then follow ―View Article (PDF)‖ hyperlink).
See NOJUMI, supra note 8, at 131; see generally Sikander Shah, An In-Depth Analysis of the Evolution of Self-Determination Under International Law and the Ensuing Impact on the Kashmiri Freedom Struggle, Past and Present, 34 N. See generally STEPHEN TANNER, AFGHANISTAN: A MILITARY HISTORY FROM ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO THE FALL OF THE TALIBAN 271–87 (2003); see MUSA KHAN JALALZAI, TALIBAN AND THE NEW GREAT GAME IN AFGHANISTAN 130–31 (2002); Febe Armanios, Islamic Religious Schools, Madrasas: Background, CONGRESSIONAL RESEARCH SERVICE, Oct.org/world/archive/madrasas. See NOJUMI, supra note 8, at 122. at 121; see generally JALALZAI, supra note 22, at 109–26.
See MARSDEN, supra note 10, at 115. AMIN SAIKAL, MODERN AFGHANISTAN: A HISTORY OF STRUGGLE AND SURVIVAL 225 (2004).edu/law_globalstudies/vol9/iss1/4 2010] WAR ON TERRORISM 81 The advent of the U. War on Terror in Afghanistan brought an end to the Taliban regime, but not to the movement.29 As a consequence, Afghanistan returned to a state of anarchy with the authority of the American-instituted Afghan government primarily limited to the capital city of Kabul. and NATO forces have not been successful in controlling any part of Afghanistan.31 The region has been flooded with thousands of radical fighters from Central Asia, the Middle East, and other diverse parts of the world that see the region as a religious battlefield and cherish the opportunity to battle the West.32 Given the porous border between Pakistan and Afghanistan, the United States asserts that many such fighters routinely flee into the frontier region of Pakistan where they are provided a safe haven by the local tribal communities.33 There are also claims that many local fighters from the tribal areas of Pakistan engage with U.
forces in Afghanistan.34 The veracity of these claims is contestable to some, but irrespective of that determination, one thing is for certain: the fight against terrorism has spilled into Pakistan.35 The outcome of this ideological battle between state and non-state actors has resulted in more radicalization, civilian deaths, and suffering, and in turn threatens fragmentation of a nuclear Pakistan that is also battling an economic meltdown, religious fanaticism, sectarian violence, and secessionist movements.36 The concern therefore, that an implosion of Pakistan threatens international peace and security, is a serious one. One must analyze the significance and legality of U. drone attacks in Pakistan in light of these circumstances. It is quite troubling to witness the United States consistently use force against and violate the territorial 29.
THE TALIBAN AND THE CRISIS OF AFGHANISTAN 9 (Robert D. Crews & Amin Tarzi eds. NABI MISDAQ, AFGHANISTAN: POLITICAL FRAILTY AND FOREIGN INTERFERENCE 269 (2006). See Room for Debate, How Not to Lose Afghanistan, http://roomfordebate.
com/2009/01/26/how-not-to-lose-afghanistan (Jan. 26, 2009, 11:55); NATO or Taliban? Who is Winning the War in Afghanistan?, PAKISTAN DEFENCE, Jan.pk/forums/ pakistans-war/20884-nato-taliban-who-winning-war-afghanistan.html; Mark Tran, Afghanistan Strategy Must Change, US Commander McChrystal Says, GUARDIAN, Aug.uk/world/2009/aug/31/general-mcchrystal-afghanistan-bull. THE TALIBAN AND THE CRISIS OF AFGHANISTAN, supra note 29, at 232. See Syed Shoaib Hasan, Centre-Stage in the ‘War on Terror’, BBC NEWS, Mar.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7974520.