Sport and Policy Books in the Sport Management Series Sport Governance Russell Hoye and Graham Cuskelly Sport and the Media Matthew Nicholson Sport Funding and Finance Bob Stewart Managing People in Sport Organizations Tracy Taylor, Alison J. Doherty and Peter McGraw Introduction to Sport Marketing Aaron Smith Sports Economics Paul Downward, Alistair Dawson and Trudo Dejonghe Sport Management: Principles and Applications Hoye, Smith, Nicholson, Stewart and Westerbeek More information on the series can be found online by visiting www.com Sport Management Series Series editor Russell Hoye Sport and Policy Issues and Analysis Russell Hoye Matthew Nicholson Barrie Houlihan AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA First Edition, 2010 Copyright # 2010, Russell Hoye, Matthew Nicholson and Barrie Houlihan, Published by Elsevier Ltd, All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (þ44) (0) 1865 843830; fax: (þ44) (0) 1865 853333; email: permissions@elsevier. Alternatively visit the Science and Technology Books website at www.com/rights for further details Notice No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN: 978-0-7506-8594-8 For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications visit our website at elsevierdirect.com Printed and bound in Great Britain 09 10 11 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Contents LIST OF TABLES.
ix LIST OF FIGURES. xiii CHAPTER 1 Introduction: Sport and policy. 1 Sport policy issues and research.3 Policy intersections with sport .9 CHAPTER 2 Regulating organizational practice. 13 Regulating organizational structure .14 Government funding compliance .24 CHAPTER 3 Regulation of sport activity.
27 Boxing and combat sports .39 CHAPTER 4 Regulating safe sport environments .56 CHAPTER 5 Gambling and sport .61 Regulation of wagering and betting providers.65 Funding sport through gambling distributions .71 v vi Contents CHAPTER 6 Media Regulation. 75 Sale of broadcast rights .76 Access to sport broadcasts .81 Advertising content associated with sport broadcasts .93 CHAPTER 7 School sport and physical education. 97 The uneasy relationship between governments and physical education.97 Interests, power, regulation and school sport/PE .99 National curriculum for physical education. 102 From regulating curriculum PE to regulating youth sport.
110 CHAPTER 8 Physical activity and health. 113 A global health problem. 113 A role for government. 125 Physical Activity Guidelines.
127 Public Awareness and Education. 129 CHAPTER 9 Urban regeneration and economic development. 133 A multi-faceted rationale. 142 The Olympic Games and rhetoric of urban regeneration.
142 Government and The Australian Grand Prix. 146 Policy communities and mechanisms. 152 CHAPTER 10 Social inclusion. 155 Sport’s social role within sport policy.
157 Sport’s social role within non-sport policy. 171 Contents vii CHAPTER 11 Conclusion. 175 Enabling public policy. 201 This page intentionally left blank List of Tables Table 1.1 Broad areas of government policy intersections with sport .2 Rationales for regulating .3 Regulatory strategies of government relevant to sport .1 Regulation of blood sports in Britain .1 Summary of CPSU Standards for safeguarding and protecting children in sport .1 Typology of major events.2 Excerpts from 2016 Olympic Games Applicant files.144 ix This page intentionally left blank List of Figures Figure 2.1 SFAF criteria for Canadian NCOs to achieve eligibility for funding.1 Excerpt from South African Boxing Act, 2001 Regulations .1 NSW Sport and Recreation Child protection policy requirements for sport organisations.2 South Australia Child protection requirements for sport organisations.1 List of protected events, UK.2 Anti-siphoning list of events, Australia 2006-2010.84 xi This page intentionally left blank A c kno wled gem en ts This book would not be possible without the contributions from the aca- demics and researchers who have an interest in sport policy and the other areas of public policy that intersect with sport.
We wish to especially acknowledge the support and initiative provided by Chris Auld in the for- mative stages of this project. We are indebted to Eleanor Blow, Editor at Elsevier Butterworth Heinemann, for her support for this book. Finally, we would like to acknowledge the wonderful support and understanding provided by our respective families while we worked to complete this project. Russell Hoye Matthew Nicholson Barrie Houlihan xiii This page intentionally left blank CHAPTER 1 Introduction: Sport and Policy Sport has become an important aspect of government policy intervention, as evidenced by the number of nations articulating a discrete ‘sport policy’ with concomitant funding and support for elite and community sport development initiatives.
Bergsgard, Houlihan, Mangset, N dland and Rommetvedt (2007) argued that national governments consider sport to be an important facet of economic and social activity for three reasons. First, sport is of strong cultural significance to most developed nations, which is demonstrated by the amount of media attention devoted to national team success and the support for the construction of major stadia and other sporting infrastructure with public funds. Second, sport is considered a resource that can be used to help deliver non-sport objectives, such as demonstrating political power, combating social exclusion, reducing childhood obesity, improving economic development and facilitating urban regeneration. Third, sport is multi-dimensional in that it is not only a public service, but also an important aspect of welfare provision and facet of economic activity.
Thus, it can contribute in many ways to the achievement of government objectives outside of sport policy that is focussed on instrumental aspects of sport, such as improving the performance of elite athletes and increasing participation in sport. The reasons that governments support elite sport through mechanisms such as the creation of elite sports institutes, hypothecation of lottery funds for sporting infrastructure and targeted operational funding have been well-documented (cf. Similarly, government poli- cies aimed at increasing participation levels and general sport development have also been the subject of scholarly debate (cf. Coalter, 2007; DaCosta & Miragaya, 2002; Houlihan & White, 2002; Hylton & Bramham, 2008; Hylton, Bramham, Jackson & Nesti, 2001).
The intersection of the sport industry with government policy, however, is not limited to what is generally accepted to come under the purview of ‘sport policy’. Governments also enact policies that seek to regulate the actions of sport organizations as well as uti- lize sport for the accomplishment of other government policy goals. 1 2 C H A PT E R 1 : Introduction: Sport and Policy One of the earliest attempts to analyse the intersection of sport with public policy was the edited volume prepared by Johnson and Frey (1985:13) who argued that ‘sports activities are affected in myriad ways by public policy deci- sions’. They reasoned that, even in the 1980s, the nature of sport becoming big business, coupled with ‘a general change in the values and norms of society affecting public expectations of government [that the sport industry had] become a legitimate area of interest for government’ (Johnson & Frey, 1985:13).
While the focus of their book was primarily the US sports industry and the impact of public policy on the broad areas of athletes, sports adminis- tration and public interests, it was one of the first concerted efforts to explore the questions of what might be the role of government in sport: should govern- ment intervene in sport through the development of public policy, and if it did, were public policy interventions more or less successful than market forces. Some 20 years later, Houlihan noted that ‘sport is a focus for a growing vol- ume of state regulatory activity’ (Houlihan, 2005:164) and that ‘the increas- ingly prominent role of the state as variously promoter, regulator, resource provider, manipulator and exploiter of sport is beyond challenge’ (Houlihan, 2005:182). This book explores those areas of government policy that fall outside what can be described as ‘sport policy’. These include policies that seek to regulate the organizational practices of sport organizations, policies aimed at regulating how individuals might participate in particular sporting activ- ities, policies enacted that are meant to protect individuals involved in sport, policies to control gambling associated with sport, policies controlling how sport is broadcast by the media and how physical education is deliv- ered.
Aside from areas of government policy that focus on regulation, gov- ernments have also sought to use sport as a vehicle or conduit for the achievement of wider policy agendas, such as seeking to increase physical activity and health, assisting to facilitate urban regeneration and economic development and enhancing social inclusion and community development. All of these policy areas significantly impact sport, and in particular the community sport systems and organizations that deliver much of the sport participation and competition opportunities within countries such as Aus- tralia, Canada, New Zealand and the UK. These three broad areas of gov- ernment policy intersections with sport are depicted in Table 1. The focus of this book is an exploration of the impact and effect of the policies that are distinct from what can generally be considered as sport pol- icy – namely the middle (regulatory intersections) and right-hand (wider pol- icy goals) columns in Table 1.
This chapter presents a brief analysis of the focus of sport policy studies, including the elements that comprise sport policy and the instruments used to achieve sport policy outcomes. This Sport Policy Issues and Research 3 Table 1.1 Broad Areas of Government Policy Intersections with Sport Sport Policy Foci Regulatory Intersections Wider Policy Areas 1. Elite sport development 1. Using sport to address poor physical 2.
Anti-doping or drug control adopted by sport activity levels and ameliorate community 3. Increasing mass participation 2. Sport activity health issues 4. Increasing capacity of the 3.
Protecting members of sport 2. Using sport for urban regeneration and community sport system organizations economic development 4. Wagering and betting 3. Using sport to improve social inclusion associated with sport and facilitate community development 5.
Physical education policy provides the background to our arguments for a wider analysis of govern- ment policy that influences the sport system. The chapter also identifies in more detail the areas of government policy that fall outside what is com- monly understood to be sport policy and poses a number of questions wor- thy of investigation in order to understand the effects of government policy intersections with sport. SPORT POLICY ISSUES AND RESEARCH Houlihan (2005:163) suggested that while other policy areas have been the sub- ject of extensive analysis, sport policy ‘has remained on the margins’. This is in contrast to the recognition by many governments that sport is an important area of policy.
Houlihan (2005:163) argued that although ‘few governments in the 1960s gave any explicit budgetary or ministerial recognition to sport, by the mid-1990s sport was an established feature in the machinery of govern- ment in most economically developed countries’. These developments have gradually resulted in more academic interest in the area of public policy in sport, an interest that has intensified as governments more frequently view sport as a panacea for a diversity of social and economic concerns. The focus of national sport policies of western countries is generally accepted as being the twin objectives of enhancing elite sport performance and increasing the proportion of people involved in formalized competitive sport or physical activity (Bergsgard et al.