This page intentionally left blank P L A S M A PHYSICS AND FUS I ON ENERGY There has been an increase in worldwide interest in fusion research over the last decade due to the recognition that a large number of new, environmentally attractive, sustainable energy sources will be needed during the next century to meet the ever increasing demand for electrical energy. This has led to an international agreement to build a large, $4 billion, reactor-scale device known as the “International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor” (ITER). Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy is based on a series of lecture notes from graduate courses in plasma physics and fusion energy at MIT. It begins with an overview of world energy needs, current methods of energy generation, and the potential role that fusion may play in the future.
It covers energy issues such as fusion power production, power balance, and the design of a simple fusion reactor before discussing the basic plasma physics issues facing the development of fusion power – macroscopic equilibrium and stability, transport, and heating. This book will be of interest to graduate students and researchers in the field of applied physics and nuclear engineering. A large number of problems accumulated over two decades of teaching are included to aid understanding. Frei d b e r g is a Professor and previous Head of the Nuclear Science and Engineering Department at MIT.
He is also an Associate Director of the Plasma Science and Fusion Center, which is the main fusion research laboratory at MIT. P L A S M A P HYSIC S AND F US I O N E N E R GY Jeffrey P. Freidberg Massachusetts Institute of Technology CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.org Information on this title: www. Freidberg 2007 This publication is in copyright.
Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published in print format 2007 ISBN-13 978-0-511-27375-9 eBook (EBL) ISBN-10 0-511-27375-4 eBook (EBL) ISBN-13 978-0-521-85107-7 hardback ISBN-10 0-521-85107-6 hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. For Karen Contents Preface page xiii Acknowledgements xv Units xvii Part I Fusion power 1 1 Fusion and world energy 3 1.2 The existing energy options 4 1.3 The role of fusion energy 16 1.4 Overall summary and conclusions 19 Bibliography 20 2 The fusion reaction 21 2.3 Nuclear energy by fission 23 2.4 Nuclear energy by fusion 24 2.5 The binding energy curve and why it has the shape it does 29 2.6 Summary 35 Bibliography 35 Problems 36 3 Fusion power generation 37 3.2 The concepts of cross section, mean free path, and collision frequency 38 3.3 The reaction rate 42 3.4 The distribution functions, the fusion cross sections, and the fusion power density 46 3.6 Summary 56 Bibliography 57 Problems 58 vii viii Contents 4 Power balance in a fusion reactor 60 4.2 The 0-D conservation of energy relation 60 4.3 General power balance in magnetic fusion 62 4.4 Steady state 0-D power balance 62 4.5 Power balance in the plasma 65 4.6 Power balance in a reactor 69 4.7 Time dependent power balance in a fusion reactor 74 4.8 Summary of magnetic fusion power balance 82 Bibliography 82 Problems 83 5 Design of a simple magnetic fusion reactor 85 5.2 A generic magnetic fusion reactor 85 5.3 The critical reactor design parameters to be calculated 86 5.4 Design goals, and basic engineering and nuclear physics constraints 88 5.5 Design of the reactor 91 5.6 Summary 105 Bibliography 106 Problems 106 Part II The plasma physics of fusion energy 109 6 Overview of magnetic fusion 111 6.2 Basic description of a plasma 113 6.3 Single-particle behavior 113 6.4 Self-consistent models 114 6.5 MHD equilibrium and stability 115 6.6 Magnetic fusion concepts 116 6.8 Heating and current drive 118 6.9 The future of fusion research 120 Bibliography 120 7 Definition of a fusion plasma 121 7.2 Shielding DC electric fields in a plasma – the Debye length 122 7.3 Shielding AC electric fields in a plasma – the plasma frequency 126 7.4 Low collisionality and collective effects 130 7.5 Additional constraints for a magnetic fusion plasma 133 7.6 Macroscopic behavior vs.7 Summary 135 Bibliography 136 Problems 137 Contents ix 8 Single-particle motion in a plasma – guiding center theory 139 8.2 General properties of single-particle motion 141 8.3 Motion in a constant B field 143 8.4 Motion in constant B and E fields: the E × B drift 148 8.5 Motion in fields with perpendicular gradients: the ∇ B drift 151 8.6 Motion in a curved magnetic field: the curvature drift 156 8.7 Combined V∇ B and Vk drifts in a vacuum magnetic field 159 8.8 Motion in time varying E and B fields: the polarization drift 160 8.9 Motion in fields with parallel gradients: the magnetic moment and mirroring 167 8.10 Summary – putting all the pieces together 177 Bibliography 179 Problems 179 9 Single-particle motion – Coulomb collisions 183 9.2 Coulomb collisions – mathematical derivation 185 9.3 The test particle collision frequencies 191 9.4 The mirror machine revisited 198 9.5 The slowing down of high-energy ions 201 9.7 Net exchange collisions 212 9.8 Summary 219 Bibliography 220 Problems 221 10 A self-consistent two-fluid model 223 10.2 Properties of a fluid model 224 10.3 Conservation of mass 227 10.4 Conservation of momentum 229 10.5 Conservation of energy 234 10.6 Summary of the two-fluid model 241 Bibliography 242 Problems 243 11 MHD – macroscopic equilibrium 245 11.1 The basic issues of macroscopic equilibrium and stability 245 11.2 Derivation of MHD from the two-fluid model 246 11.3 Derivation of MHD from guiding center theory 252 11.4 MHD equilibrium – a qualitative description 258 11.5 Basic properties of the MHD equilibrium model 261 11.6 Radial pressure balance 264 11.7 Toroidal force balance 271 x Contents 11.8 Summary of MHD equilibrium 292 Bibliography 293 Problems 293 12 MHD – macroscopic stability 296 12.2 General concepts of stability 297 12.3 A physical picture of MHD instabilities 302 12.4 The general formulation of the ideal MHD stability problem 307 12.5 The infinite homogeneous plasma – MHD waves 313 12.6 The linear θ-pinch 317 12.7 The m = 0 mode in a linear Z -pinch 320 12.8 The m = 1 mode in a linear Z -pinch 324 12.9 Summary of stability 329 Bibliography 329 Problems 330 13 Magnetic fusion concepts 333 13.2 The levitated dipole (LDX) 335 13.3 The field reversed configuration (FRC) 344 13.4 The surface current model 350 13.5 The reversed field pinch (RFP) 358 13.9 Revisiting the simple fusion reactor 437 13.10 Overall summary 441 Bibliography 443 Problems 445 14 Transport 449 14.2 Transport in a 1-D cylindrical plasma 451 14.3 Solving the transport equations 465 14.5 Empirical scaling relations 497 14.6 Applications of transport theory to a fusion ignition experiment 513 14.7 Overall summary 529 Bibliography 529 Problems 531 15 Heating and current drive 534 15.3 Neutral beam heating 540 Contents xi 15.4 Basic principles of RF heating and current drive 551 15.5 The cold plasma dispersion relation 569 15.7 Electron cyclotron heating (ECH) 586 15.8 Ion cyclotron heating (ICH) 597 15.9 Lower hybrid current drive (LHCD) 609 15.10 Overall summary 624 Bibliography 625 Problems 627 16 The future of fusion research 633 16.2 Current status of plasma physics research 633 16.4 A Demonstration Power Plant (DEMO) 642 Bibliography 644 Appendix A Analytical derivation of σ v 645 Appendix B Radiation from an accelerating charge 650 Appendix C Derivation of Boozer coordinates 656 Appendix D Poynting’s theorem 664 Index 666 Preface Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy is a textbook about plasma physics, although it is plasma physics with a mission – magnetic fusion energy. The goal is to provide a broad, yet rigorous, overview of the plasma physics necessary to achieve the half century dream of fusion energy.
The pedagogical approach taken here fits comfortably within an Applied Physics or Nuclear Science and Engineering Department. The choice of material, the order in which it is presented, and the fact that there is a coherent storyline that always keeps the energy end goal in sight is characteristic of such applied departments. Specifically, the book starts with the design of a simple fusion reactor based on nuclear physics principles, power balance, and some basic engineering constraints. A major point, not appreciated even by many in the field, is that virtually no plasma physics is required for the basic design.
However, one of the crucial outputs of the design is a set of demands that must be satisfied by the plasma in order for magnetic fusion energy to be viable. Specifically, the design mandates certain values of the pressure, temperature, magnetic field, and the geometry of the plasma. This defines the plasma parameter regime at the outset. It is then the job of plasma physicists to discover ways to meet these objectives, which separate naturally into the problems of macroscopic equilibrium and stability, transport, and heating.
The focus on fusion energy thereby motivates the structure of the entire book – how can we, the plasma physics community, discover ways to make the plasma perform to achieve the energy mission. Why write such a book now? Fusion research has increased worldwide over the last several years because of the internationally recognized pressure to develop new reliable energy sources. With the recently signed agreement to build the next generation Interna- tional Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), I anticipate a substantial increase in interest on the part of new students and young scientists to join the fusion program. While fusion still has a long way to go before becoming a commercially viable source of energy, the advent of ITER enhances the already existing worldwide interest and excitement in plasma physics and fusion research.
The incredibly challenging science and engineering problems coupled with the dream of an energy system characterized by unlimited fuel, near environmental perfection, and economical competitiveness are still big draws to new students and researchers. xiii xiv Preface Who is the intended audience? This textbook is aimed at seniors, first year graduate students, and new scientists joining the field. In general, the style of presentation includes in depth physical explanations aimed at developing physical intuition. It also includes many detailed derivations to clarify some of the mathematical mysteries of plasma physics.
The book should thus be reasonably straightforward for newcomers to fusion to read in a stand alone fashion. There is also an extensive set of homework problems developed over two decades of teaching the subject at MIT. With more explanations and detailed derivations something must give or else the book would become excessively long. The answer is to carefully select the material covered.
In deciding how to choose which material to include and not to include, there are clearly tough decisions to be made. I have made these choices based on the idea of providing newcomers with a good first pass at understanding all the essential issues of magnetic fusion energy. Consequently, the material included is largely focused on the plasma physics mandated by fusion energy, which for a first pass is most easily described by macroscopic fluid models. As to what is not included, there is very little discussion of fusion engineering.
There is also very little discussion of plasma kinetic theory (e. the Vlasov equation and the Fokker– Planck equation). Somewhat surprisingly to me, it was not until the next-to-last chapter in the book that I first actually needed any of the detailed results of kinetic theory (i.