Future Energy Improved, Sustainable and Clean Options for our Planet Third Edition Edited by Trevor M. Letcher University of Kwazulu-Natal Durban, Kwazulunatal, South Africa Laurel House, Stratton on the Fosse United Kingdom Elsevier Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Chapter “Nuclear Fission” is a reprint from second edition.
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Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-0-08-102886-5 For information on all Elsevier publications visit our website at https://www.com/books-and-journals Publisher: Candice Janco Acquisition Editor: Marisa LaFleur Editorial Project Manager: Sara Pianavilla Production Project Manager: Divya KrishnaKumar Cover Designer: Christian J. Bilbow Typeset by TNQ Technologies To my grandchildren, Amy and Finn Taylor List of Contributors Rosalind Archer Geothermal Institute/Department of Engineering Science, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; email: r. Bandilla Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, United States; email: bandilla@princeton.edu Amarjeet Bassi Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada Vitezslav Benda Czech Technical University in Prague, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Prague, Czechia; email: benda@fel.cz Hasan Berkem Sonder Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom Subhamoy Bhattacharya Surrey Advanced Geotechnical Engineering (SAGE) Laboratory, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom; email: S.uk Jeremy Boak Retired, Oklahoma Geological Survey, Mewbourne College of Earth and Energy, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, United States; email: jeremyboak@comcast.net Hans Böhm Energy Institute at the Johannes Kepler University Linz, Linz, Austria Ray Boswell National Energy Technology Laboratory, Pittsburgh, PA, United States; email: ray.gov Christian Breyer Department of Electrical Engineering, LUT University, Lappeenranta, Finland; email: christian.fi Carlos Henrique de Brito Cruz São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil; Physics Institute, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil; email: brito@fapesp.br Liana Cipcigan Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom xxi xxii List of Contributors Timothy Collett United States Geological Survey, Denver, CO, United States Luís Augusto Barbosa Cortez Center for Energy Planning, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil Andrew Crossland Advance Further Energy Ltd, Retford and Infratec, Wellington, New Zealand Arno de Klerk Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada; email: deklerk@ualberta.ca Christian Doetsch Fraunhofer-Institut für Umwelt, Sicherheits- und Energietechnik UMSICHT, Oberhausen, Germany; email: christian.de Mark Dooner University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom; email: mark.org Agnieszka Drobniak Indiana Geological and Water Survey, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States Andy Ford School of the Built Environment and Architecture, London South Bank University, London, United Kingdom; email: andy.uk Matthew Gill Dalton Nuclear Institute, Manchester University, Manchester, United Kingdom Aaron Gillich School of the Built Environment and Architecture, London South Bank University, London, United Kingdom David Greenwood School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle-upon Tyne, United Kingdom Rajender Gupta Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada; email: rajender.ca Steve Hancock XtremeWell Engineering Inc., Calgary, Canada Nawshad Haque CSIRO Energy, Clayton, VIC, Australia; email: Nawshad.
Hardy NOVA Research Inc., Alexandria, VA, United States List of Contributors xxiii Yulin Hu Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada Paul Jaffe United States Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC, United States; email: paul.mil Kejun Jiang Energy System Analysis Research Center, Energy Research Institute, Beijing, China; email: kjiang@eri.cn Richard Kembleton EUROfusion, Garching, Germany; email: Richard.uk Ånund Killingtveit Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway; email: aanundk@outlook.com Robert Kleinberg Columbia University Center on Global Energy Policy, New York, NY, United States; Boston University Institute for Sustainable Energy, Boston, MA, United States Vinoj Kurian Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada Sung-Rock Lee KIGAM, Seoul, South Korea Trevor M. Letcher Department of Chemistry, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa; Laurel House, Stratton on the Fosse, United Kingdom; email: trevor@letcher.uk Johannes Lindorfer Energy Institute at the Johannes Kepler University Linz, Linz, Austria; email: lindorfer@energieinstitut-linz.at Francis Livens Dalton Nuclear Institute, Manchester University, Manchester, United Kingdom Giorgio Locatelli University of Leeds, School of Civil Engineering, Leeds, Yorkshire, United Kingdom; email: g.uk Stephan Lux Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE, Department of Electrical Energy Storage, Freiburg, Germany Maria Mastalerz Indiana Geological and Water Survey, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States; email: mmastale@indiana.edu xxiv List of Contributors Mary Helen McCay National Centre for Hydrogen Research, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL, United States; email: mmccay@fit.edu Benito Mignacca University of Leeds, School of Civil Engineering, Leeds, Yorkshire, United Kingdom Pegah Mirzania School of the Built Environment and Architecture, London South Bank University, London, United Kingdom Gavin M. Mudd Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; email: gavin.au Stalin Munoz-Vaca School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle-upon Tyne, United Kingdom Paul Nieuwenhuis Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom; email: sustainableautoman@gmail.com Georgios Nikitas Surrey Advanced Geotechnical Engineering (SAGE) Laboratory, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom Luiz Augusto Horta Nogueira Center for Energy Planning, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil Alan Owen Centre for Alternative Technology, Madrynlleth, Pows Wales, United Kingdom; email: alan.uk Charalampos Patsios School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle- upon Tyne, United Kingdom; haris.uk Aiden Peakman Dalton Nuclear Institute, Manchester University, Manchester, United Kingdom; email: a.uk Robert Pitz-Paal German Aerospace Centre (DLR), Institute of Solar Research, Köln, Germany; email: Robert.pitz-paal@dlr.de Astrid Pohlig Fraunhofer-Institut für Umwelt, Sicherheits- und Energietechnik UMSICHT, Oberhausen, Germany Mahendra Pratap Directorate General of Hydrocarbons, Delhi, India Deepak Pudasainee Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada List of Contributors xxv Daniel Cenk Rosenfeld Energy Institute at the Johannes Kepler University Linz, Linz, Austria Shahin Shafiee Department of Mechanical Engineering, Prairie View A&M University, Prairie View, TX, United States Gláucia Mendes Souza Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo (USP), SP, Brazil Daniel A. Vallero Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States; email: dav1@duke.edu Matthias Vetter Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE, Department of Electrical Energy Storage, Freiburg, Germany; email: matthias.de Nathan Vimalan Surrey Advanced Geotechnical Engineering (SAGE) Laboratory, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom Neal Wade School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle-upon Tyne, United Kingdom Sara Walker School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle-upon Tyne, United Kingdom Jihong Wang University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom Heather D.
Willauer Naval Research Laboratory, Materials Science & Technology Division, Washington, DC, United States; email: heather.mil Johannes Wüllner Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE, Department of Electrical Energy Storage, Freiburg, Germany Chunbao (Charles) Xu Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada; email: cxu6@uwo.ca Koji Yamamoto Japan Oil, Gas, and Metals National Corporation, Tokyo, Japan Preface This third edition of Future Energy is a response to the interest shown in the first and second editions and to the new developments in the field. Eight new chapters have been introduced, including topics such as • small nuclear reactors; • electric vehicle revolution; • energy storage, energy from biomass; • solar energy beamed from space; • life-cycle assessment of renewables; • integration of intermittent renewable energy; • problems with metals and elements needed to support renewable energy; and • a global overview of future energy. The new book is divided into nine sections: • Introduction with a focus on carbon dioxide pollution; • Fossil fuels (energy sources); • Nuclear power (energy sources); • Transport energy (energy sources); • Energy storage; • Renewable energy (energy sources); • New possible energy options; • Sustainabilty; • The current situation and the future. Discussions on the energy situation in countries around the world have been restricted to China as it is the most rapidly developing superpower, and it produces more energy than any other country on Earth.
China also produces more carbon dioxide than any other country. The book looks at all types of energy that may be used in the future, including the sustainable types such as solar, wind, tidal, and wave energy. Fossil fuel in all its forms, from coal, oil, shale oil, methane gas, and methane hydrates, occupies a prominent place in this book as these energy sources will be with us for many decades before we have expanded and developed renewable energy forms, built new nuclear fission plants, or possibly even developed new types of energy such as nuclear fusion and space solar power in which orbiting solar panels collect energy from the sun and beam it back down to Earth using lasers or microwaves. This book, like the previous editions, has been produced in order to allow the reader to have a reasonable, logical, and correct understanding and insight into our future energy options.
The final decision as to which energy form should be developed in a country or region must take into account many factors including sustainability; the general safety and xxvii xxviii Preface health of the general public; the overall energy requirements of society; the geographical position of each region; and above all, the alarming rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide over the past 50 years, which threatens to change the world’s future climate through global warming. The first edition of this book had its origins in the committee meetings of the International Association of Chemical Thermodynamics1, an organization affiliated to the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC2). IUPAC’s adherence to the International System of Quantities is reflected in the book with the use of SI units throughout. Flexibility and accommodation are ensured for various constituencies by including alternate non-SI units that may be more familiar to specific areas.
The index no- tation is used to remove any ambiguities, for example, billion and trillion are written as 109 and 1012, respectively. To further remove any ambiguities, the concept of the quantity cal- culus is used. It is based on the equation: physical quantity ¼ number unit. To give an example: power ¼ 200 W and hence 200 ¼ power/W.
This is of particular importance in the headings of tables and the axis labels of graphs. One can only plot a number on a graph, and the axis label reflects this reality. This volume is unique in the genre of books of similar or related titles currently on sale in that each chapter of Future Energy has been written by an expert scientist or engineer, working in the field.