Subsea Pipeline Engineering 2nd Edition Andrew C. Palmer and Roger A. King Disclaimer: The recommendations, advice, descriptions, and the methods in this book are presented solely for educational purposes. The author and publisher assume no liability whatsoever for any loss or damage that results from the use of any of the material in this book.
Use of the material in this book is solely at the risk of the user. Copyright © 2008 by PennWell Corporation 1421 South Sheridan Road Tulsa, Oklahoma 74112-6600 USA 800.com Marketing Manager: Julie Simmons National Account Executive: Barbara McGee Director: Mary McGee Managing Editor: Marla Patterson Production Manager: Sheila Brock Production Editor: Tony Quinn Book Designer: Susan E. Ormston Cover Designer / Book Layout: Alan McCuller Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Palmer, Andrew C. (Andrew Clennel), 1938– Subsea pipeline engineering / Andrew C.
Palmer and Roger A. Includes bibliographical references and index. Underwater pipelines--Design and construction.8’672--dc22 2007050317 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transcribed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 12 11 10 09 08 List of Figures Chapter 2 2–1 Strait of Georgia between the mainland and Vancouver Island. 21 2–2 Strait of Gibraltar. 23 Chapter 3 3–1 Application of strengthening mechanisms to pipeline steels. 36 3–2 Relation between stress and strain in a tensile test.
45 3–3 Basic oxygen steelmaking and secondary processing. 56 3–4 Continuous casting of steel slab. 57 3–5 Hot-rolling steel plate and strip production processes. 62 3–6 Alternative TMCP processes.
63 3–7 Seamless pipe-manufacturing processes. 68 3–8 Manufacture of ERW and continuous butt-welded pipe. 70 3–9 High-frequency concentration of current density at surface. 74 3–11 Manufacture of helical-welded pipe.
75 Chapter 4 4–1 Effect of chromium and nickel content on the corrosion resistance of steel. 88 4–2 Pitting and crevice corrosion rates as a function of PRE number. 92 4–3 Stress corrosion cracking .indb 13 6/23/08 10:05:51 AM xiv Subsea Pipeline Engineering 4–4 Comparison of stress corrosion cracking susceptibility of steels. 97 4–6 Fabrication of hot-bonded, internally clad seamless pipe.
108 4–7 Fabrication of hot-bonded, internally clad U-O-E pipe. 110 4–8 Explosive cladding of steel plate for internally clad U-O-E pipe. 111 4–9 Fabrication of internally clad TFP (tight-fit pipe). 112 Chapter 5 5–1 Submerged arc welding.
124 5–2 Manual metal arc welding. 125 5–3 Gas metal arc welding. 125 5–4 Tungsten inert gas welding. 126 5–5 Bevels for manual arc welding.
128 5–6 Bevels for semiautomatic and automatic welding. 129 5–7 Requirement for preheating for cellulosic electrodes. 131 5–8 Girth weld fabrication. 132 5–9 S-lay barge-welding practice.
132 5–10 The heat-affected zone (HAZ). 159 5–12 Girth welding by explosive expansion of a jointing ring. 165 Chapter 6 6–1 Flexible pipelines and risers. 170 6–2 Fabrication of flexible pipelines and risers.
171 6–3 Sheath pressure relief systems for flexible pipelines. 176 6–4 Sacrificial cathodic protection of flexible pipe. 178 Chapter 7 7–1 Generalized view of electrochemical corrosion. 193 7–2 Sweet corrosion mechanism.
195 7–4 Sweet corrosion morphology. 204 7–5 Water entrainment in oil pipelines. 207 7–6 Sulfide-related cracking morphologies. 221 7–7 Mechanism of sulfide stress cracking (SSC).
224 7–8 NACE MR-0175 domains of SSC .indb 14 6/23/08 10:05:51 AM List of Figures xv 7–9 ISO 15156 domains of SSC. 227 7–10 Morphology of hydrogen-induced cracking. 230 7–11 Conditions in which HIC is important (schematic). 231 7–12 Corrosion mechanism of sulfate-reducing bacteria.
240 Chapter 8 8–1 Flood coatings. 253 8–2 Application of extruded coatings. 255 8–3 Fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE) application. 256 8–4 Holiday detection: (a) wet sponge, (b) sparking with wire brush, (c) sparking with ring jeeper.
294 8–6 Field joint corrosion protection and infill. 297 Chapter 9 9–1 Fluid element in steady horizontal flow. 306 9–2 Relationship among Reynolds number, friction factor, and roughness. 309 9–3 Fluid element in steady inclined flow.
309 9–4 Phase equilibrium of hydrates. 320 9–5 Flow regime map. 323 Chapter 10 10–1 Forces in a pressurized pipeline. 329 10–2 Circumferential stress in a pipeline pressurized internally and externally.
329 10–3 Minimum D/t ratio as a function of p/2Y. 340 10–4 Histogram of measured collapse pressures. 341 10–5 Relation between curvature and bending moment. 347 10–6 Relation between D/t and buckling strain KR.
349 10–7 Ovalization during bending: (a) forces on elements below and above neutral surface, (b) resultant forces transferred to cross section. 353 10–8 Indentation of 32-in.indb 15 6/23/08 10:05:52 AM xvi Subsea Pipeline Engineering Chapter 11 11–1 Water flow across seabed pipelines: (a) pipeline on bottom, (b) pipeline above bottom, (c) pipeline in trench. 370 11–2 Relation between drag coefficient and Reynolds number Re (redrawn from Littlejohns). 372 11–3 Relation between lift coefficient and Reynolds number Re (redrawn from Littlejohns).
373 11–4 Horizontal and vertical reactions between pipeline and seabed: (a) monotonically increasing water velocity, (b) oscillatory water velocity. 381 11–5 Onset of seabed instability. 388 Chapter 12 12–1 Lay-barge production. Courtesy of London, C.
395 12–2 S-Lay lay-barge pipelaying schematic (not to scale). 396 12–3 Tog Mor lay barge (photograph courtesy of Allseas). 397 12–4 Lorelay lay barge (photograph courtesy of Allseas). 400 12–5 J-lay lay-barge pipelaying schematic (not to scale).
405 12–7 Balder lay barge (photograph courtesy of Heerema). 406 12–8 Solitaire lay barge (photograph courtesy of Allseas). 406 12–9 Chickasaw reel barge (photograph courtesy of Global Industries). 409 12–10 Hercules reel barge (photograph courtesy of Global Industries).
410 12–11 Deep Blue reel ship (photograph courtesy of Technip-Coflexip). 411 Chapter 13 13–1 Shore pull. 433 Chapter 14 14–1 Upheaval buckling (schematic). 447 14–2 Upheaval buckle of 1,020-mm onshore pipeline in Uzbekistan.
447 14–3 Buckle shown in figure 14–2, profile of pipeline axis and ground surface .indb 16 6/23/08 10:05:52 AM List of Figures xvii 14–4 Design chart. 452 14–5 Element of pipeline. 453 14–6 Pipeline laterally moved on sleeper. 459 14–7 Observed relationship between reduced velocity and oscillation amplitude.
463 14–8 Span lengths and span assessment. 466 Chapter 15 15–1 Corrosion decision tree. 487 15–3 Weight loss and electrical-resistance probes. 492 15–4 Corrosion-monitoring access fitting.
499 15–5 Installation and retrieval of monitoring devices. 500 Chapter 16 16–1 Age dependence of incidence of failure. 508 Appendix B B–1 Test scheme for supplementary requirement U .indb 17 6/23/08 10:05:52 AM List of Tables Chapter 3 3–1 Standard strength grades and yield-to-tensile ratios. 31 3–2 Typical compositions of pipeline steels.
32 3–3 Percentage effect of strengthening mechanisms. 35 3–4 Solid solution strengthening. 37 3–5 Composition limits before weldability trials required EEMUA Document 166. 40 3–6 Effect of alloying elements on steel properties.
58 Chapter 4 4–1 Compositions of corrosion-resistant alloys: (a) martensitic stainless steels, (b) austenitic stainless steels, (c) high-molybdenum-chromium-nickel stainless steels, (d) duplex stainless steels, (e) high-nickel alloys. 86 4–2 Mechanical and corrosion properties of corrosion-resistant alloys. 90 4–3 Critical crevice corrosion temperatures: Tests in 10% FeCl3.6H2O at pH 1 for 24-hour exposure. 93 4–4 Relative costs of solid corrosion-resistant alloys.
99 4–5 Examples of submarine duplex pipelines. 102 4–6 Examples of internally clad pipelines and risers. 107 4–7 Relative cost comparison of pipeline material options .indb 19 6/23/08 10:05:52 AM xx Subsea Pipeline Engineering Chapter 5 5–1 Comparison of welding costs. 136 5–2 Solubility of hydrogen in iron at atmospheric pressure.
142 5–3 Diffusion coefficients for hydrogen in iron, steel, and stainless steels. 142 5–4 Diffusivity of hydrogen. 142 Chapter 6 6–1 Properties of thermoplastic liner materials. 174 6–2 Permeability of liner materials to methane at 50°C.
175 6–3 Continuous lengths of Coflexip flexible pipe. 179 6–4 Resistance of thermoplastic materials. 182 Chapter 7 7–1 Comparisons between onshore and offshore pipelines failure statistics. 190 7–2 Relative occurrence of internal corrosion.
191 7–3 Corrosiveness of iron sulfides. 222 7–4 Stress corrosion cracking environments. 224 7–5 Prandtl numbers for calculation of corrosion rates in seawater injection pipelines. 235 7–6 Growth limitations for sulfate-reducing bacteria.
238 Chapter 8 8–1 Potential corrosion rates of steel in seawater. 248 8–2 Reference electrode potentials. 267 8–3 Evaluation of microbial activity of sediments. 269 8–4 Protection potentials ranges for steel.
270 8–5 Under- and overprotection potentials for steel pipelines. 272 8–6 Sacrificial anode materials. 273 8–7 CP current requirements, according to NACE RP-0176. 273 8–8 CP current requirements, according to DNV RP-B401.
274 8–9 CP current requirements, according to DNV RP-F103. 274 8–10 Coating breakdown values, according to DNV RP-F103. 276 8–11 Field joint coating breakdown values, according to DNV RP-F103. 276 8–12 Resistivity design values for anodes .indb 20 6/23/08 10:05:52 AM List of Tables xxi Chapter 15 15–1 Inspection and monitoring techniques.
481 15–2 Operating parameters linked to corrosion. 504 Appendix B B–1 Limit states, safety classes, and failure probabilities .indb 21 6/23/08 10:05:53 AM Preface Submarine pipelines are the arteries of the oil and gas industry, important in engineering practice and full of excitement and interest, though at first sight less spectacular than platforms and floating production systems. The technology has advanced dramatically. Projects that were dreams 20 years ago are now becoming reality.
I came into this field by lucky chance. I was a university lecturer in Cambridge, and in the summer of 1970, I was invited to spend the summer at Brown University, where I had completed my PhD five years earlier. The Alaska pipeline was in the news. Former colleagues in the Division of Engineering remembered that I had worked on permafrost as a sideline to my PhD, and they had some money for research on geotechnical aspects of environmental problems.
They told me that if I could oversee the research, they could support me for the summer. I was keen to go and networked through a colleague in Cambridge to locate the people in British Petroleum (BP) in London who were working on the problem. I told that them that I was not looking for money but was looking for an interesting problem. Impressed by this refreshingly naive approach, they gave me a problem to do with differential settlement on thawing permafrost; I researched that topic and was taken to talk to the pipeline team in Houston.
A year later, BP called me again and said that there were questions about a planned North Sea pipeline, Forties, the first large-diameter line in what was then thought of as deep water, 125-m deep. “That sounds interesting,” I said, “but I don’t know anything about underwater pipelines.indb 25 6/23/08 10:05:53 AM xxvi Subsea Pipeline Engineering “We think that’s an advantage,” they replied. “You’ll bring a fresh mind to it. Come and see us tomorrow.” That phone call changed my life.
Over the next few years, I worked on a number of problems, among them pipelaying mechanics, buckle propagation, interaction with sandwaves, modeling, and surface tie-in. Since then, most of my work has been in pipelines. In 1975 I went to work for the leading consultant in underwater pipelines, R. Brown and Associates, and worked on projects in Arctic Canada, the North Sea, and the Middle East.
It was in that period that I first met my friend and co-author Roger King, and later we worked together at University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (UMIST).