THE EFFECT OF SEDIMENTATION ON OYSTERS (OSTREA LURIDA) ADJACENT TO EELGRASS BEDS (ZOSTERA MARINA) _______________________________ A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of California State University, Fullerton _______________________________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science in Biology _______________________________ By Victoria Wood Thesis Committee Approval: Dr. Danielle Zacherl, Department of Biological Science, Chair Dr. Paul Stapp, Department of Biological Science Dr. Joseph Carlin, Department of Geological Sciences Fall 2018 ABSTRACT Oyster and eelgrass beds both provide ecosystem services that may include providing complex three-dimensional habitats, refuge from predation, and shoreline resiliency by buffering erosion.
California’s native oyster, Ostrea lurida, and native eelgrass, Zostera marina, have declined over the past two centuries on the west coast of the United States. As part of a Living Shorelines initiative to restore these important habitats while promoting shoreline resiliency, I restored oysters and eelgrass alone and adjacent to one another. Specifically, I aimed to assess if the oyster response is affected by eelgrass due to eelgrass-induced sediment deposition. From June 2016— April 2017, four treatments were established with restored eelgrass, oyster, oyster/eelgrass, and control plots at each of four locations in Newport Bay, California.
Sediment characteristics such as grain size, sediment deposition onto oyster shell, and upshore sedimentation were measured using mud cores, point-contact techniques, and sediment pins. Eelgrass and oyster responses were measured by assessing eelgrass blade density, oyster settlement, adult oyster density, and adult oyster size. After one year, both the Oyster and Oyster/Eelgrass treatments tended to have more upshore silt and clay sediments than Eelgrass and Control treatments. Similarly, six months after oyster bed construction, mud deposition on shell was higher on oyster beds restored alone than on beds restored adjacent to eelgrass, suggesting that eelgrass may filter sediments from the water column, reducing the sediment load delivered to adjacent ii oyster beds.
However, after one year this “filtering effect” remained at only one of the sites, and there was no significant difference in sedimentation upshore of treatment plots. In the reproductive season following restoration, cumulative settlement onto oyster beds was not affected by the presence of eelgrass. After one year, adult oyster density was either unaffected by the presence of eelgrass or was greater where oysters were restored alone than adjacent to eelgrass. Consistent with previous studies, oyster length increased with mud deposition on shell.
Collectively, my results suggest some sediment filtering by eelgrass beds, with varying effects on adjacent oysters across time and among sites. Conclusions about whether to restore oysters alone versus adjacent to eelgrass meadows may be premature given the temporal and spatial context dependency observed within the first year after restoration, warranting continued and future investigation into these processes. Ultimately my findings may direct future restoration initiatives involving oysters and eelgrass. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT.
ii LIST OF TABLES. vi LIST OF FIGURES. 1 Purpose and Hypothesis. 8 Study Site and Experimental Set-up.
10 Sedimentation and Grain Size. 10 Percent Mud Coverage and Mud Deposition on Shell. 12 Oyster Settlement and Recruitment. 14 Synthesis of Data Collection.
14 Post-hoc Analyses. 20 Percent Mud Coverage. 22 Mud Deposition on Shell. Mud Deposition on Hard Substrata.
48 Filtering Effect of Eelgrass. 49 Impacts to Oyster Communities. 51 Living Shorelines Implications. 59 v LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1.
Two-way ANOVA test statistics for effects of site, treatment, and their interactions on eelgrass density four months after oyster bed construction, August 2017, in Newport Bay, CA. Two-way ANOVA test statistics for effects of site, treatment, and their interactions on eelgrass density four months after oyster bed construction, August 2017, in Newport Bay, CA. Two-way ANOVA test statistics for effects of site, treatment, and their interactions on eelgrass density twelve months after oyster bed construction in Newport Bay, CA, in May 2018. Two-way ANOVA test statistics for effects of site, and treatment on upshore sedimentation measured with sediment pins twelve months after oyster bed construction in Newport Bay, CA, in May 2018.
Two-way ANOVA test statistics for effects of site, treatment and their interaction on percent mud coverage in January 2017, during pre-oyster bed construction in Newport Bay, CA. Two-way ANOVA test statistics for effects of site, treatment and their interaction on percent mud coverage in November 2017, six months post-oyster bed construction in Newport Bay, CA. Two-way ANOVA test statistics for effects of site, treatment and their interaction on percent mud coverage in May 2018, twelve months post-oyster bed construction in Newport Bay, CA. Two-way ANOVA test statistics for effects of site, treatment and their interactions on average millimeter of mud measurements taken on oyster shell six months after oyster bed construction in Newport Bay, CA, in November 2017.
Two-way ANOVA test statistics for effects of site, treatment and their interactions on sediment deposition onto oyster shells twelve months after oyster bed construction in Newport Bay, CA, in May 2018 28 vi 10. Two-way ANOVA test statistics for effects of site, and treatment on change in percent clay concentration from pre-restoration to twelve months after oyster bed construction in Newport Bay, CA. Two-way ANOVA test statistics for effects of site, and treatment on change in percent silt concentration from pre-restoration to twelve months after oyster bed construction in Newport Bay, CA. Two-way ANOVA test statistics for effects of site, and treatment on change in percent sand concentration from pre-restoration to twelve months after oyster bed construction in Newport Bay, CA.
Two-way ANOVA test statistics for effects of site, and treatment on cumulative oyster settlement in 2016 pre-oyster bed construction in Newport Bay, CA. Two-way ANOVA test statistics for effects of site, and treatment on cumulative oyster settlement in 2017 post-oyster bed construction in Newport Bay, CA. Two-way ANOVA test statistics for effects of site, and treatment on oyster recruitment in 2016 pre-oyster bed construction in Newport Bay, CA. Two-way ANOVA test statistics for effects of site, and treatment on oyster recruitment in 2017 post-oyster bed construction in Newport Bay, CA.
Two-way ANOVA test statistics for effects of site, treatment, and their interaction on adult oyster density in May 2018, one year post-oyster bed construction in Newport Bay, CA. Two-way ANOVA test statistics for effects of site, treatment, and their interaction on oyster length size (mm) in May 2018, one year post-oyster bed construction in Newport Bay, CA. 45 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. The four locations (PCH, Westcliff, Deanza, and Shellmaker) in Upper Newport Bay, CA that each contain oyster and eelgrass beds restored together and in isolation as well as an un-manipulated control plot.
The restoration treatment layout at each of four sites in Newport Bay, CA followed this general schematic (not drawn to scale). Eelgrass density per treatment per site (n=24 quadrats per treatment) in August 2017. Eelgrass density per treatment per site (n=24 quadrats per treatment) in May 2018. Total sedimentation (cm) per treatment across sites (n=3) in May 2018 after twelve months of experimental data collection.
Total sedimentation (cm) per treatment across treatments (n=4) in May 2018 after twelve months of experimental data collection. Percent mud coverage per treatment per site (n=3) in January 2017, during pre-oyster bed conclusion. Percent mud coverage per treatment per site (n=3) in November 2017, six months post-oyster bed construction. Percent mud coverage per treatment per site (n=3) in May 2018, twelve months post-oyster bed construction.
Percent mud coverage in April 2017 (during oyster bed construction), November 2017 (six months after oyster bed construction), and May 2018 (one year after oyster bed construction) at oyster and oyster/eelgrass treatments. Mud deposition (mm) onto hard substrata on oyster bed treatments in November 2017, six months after oyster bed construction. Mud deposition (mm) on hard substrata per treatment per site in May 2018, twelve months after oyster bed construction. Change in percent clay concentration per site (n=4) from pre-survey conditions to post-oyster bed construction twelve months.
Change in percent silt concentration per site (n=4) from pre-restoration to post-oyster bed construction twelve months. Change in percent sand concentration per site (n=4) from pre-restoration to post-oyster bed construction twelve months. Grain size per treatment (n=3) pre-restoration, six months after oyster bed construction, and twelve months after oyster bed construction in Newport Bay, CA. Non-metric multidimensional scaling of grain size characteristics (sand, silt, and clay) per treatment per site in March 2017, pre-restoration in Newport Bay, CA.
Non-metric multidimensional scaling of grain size characteristics (sand, silt, and clay) per treatment per site in May 2018, one year post-oyster bed construction in Newport Bay, CA. Mean Ostrea lurida cumulative settlement per tile per treatment in 2016. Total cumulative settlement of Ostrea lurida per site in 2016 37 21. Total cumulative settlement of Ostrea lurida per treatment in 2017.
Total cumulative settlement of Ostrea lurida per site in 2017 38 23. Daily settlement of Ostrea lurida (oysters/m2/day) from April 2016-December 2016 by treatment in Newport Bay, CA. Daily settlement of Ostrea lurida (oysters/m2/day) from January 2017-December 2017 by treatment in Newport Bay. Recruitment of Ostrea lurida per tile per treatment in 2016, pre-oyster bed construction.
Recruitment of Ostrea lurida per tile per site in 2016, pre-oyster bed construction. Total recruitment of Ostrea lurida per tile per treatment in 2017, post-oyster bed construction. Total recruitment of Ostrea lurida per tile per site in 2017, post-oyster bed construction. Ostrea lurida (per m2) per site and treatment (n=10) in May 2018, twelve months post-oyster bed construction.
Length of Ostrea lurida (mm) per treatment in May 2018, one year post-oyster bed construction. Length of Ostrea lurida (mm) per site in May 2018, one year post-oyster bed construction. Relationship between average mud deposition onto hard substrata on oyster beds and average Ostrea lurida length on each bed in May 2018, twelve months post-oyster bed construction in Upper Newport Bay, CA. Regression of Ostrea lurida adult density by eelgrass density in May 2018, twelve months post-oyster bed construction.
47 x ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This thesis is dedicated to all those who actively attempt to make positive change in a sometimes discouraging world. I am inspired by those who, “never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world; indeed it’s the only thing that ever has” (Margaret Mead). First, I would like to thank my advisor and mentor, Dr. Danielle Zacherl, for her guidance, insight, and unwavering support.
This thesis would not have been possible without her help, as well as the help of others on my committee, Dr. Joseph Carlin, and Dr. Field and laboratory work was made possible with aid from Erica Jiang, William Wang, Juliann Vannordstrand, Marissa Wu, Althea Marks, Ryan Kabala, Ariana Sanchez, Rick Torres, Chelsea Bowers, Bryce Perog, Carmen Lopez, Eric Stucker, Mayra Rodrigues, and anyone else in the Zacherl lab who may have helped at any point of this project. I am also incredibly grateful for volunteers from the local community, the CSUF students from other labs or courses, and interns from Orange County Coastkeeper for their participation.
Lastly, I would like to thank my family, friends, and my boyfriend, Erick Valdez, for their limitless love and support. Financial support was provided by The California Coastal Conservancy, The Honda Marine Science Foundation, The Dr. Bright Environmental Scholarship Committee, Associated Students Inc., and the Department of Biological Sciences, CSUF. xi 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Climate change (Schlacher et al., 2008), rising sea levels (Aagaard and Sorensen, 2011), and habitat degradation (Gittman et al., 2016) have motivated interest in how to protect our shorelines in the face of an uncertain future.
Shoreline protection has been a concern for hundreds of years in the United States, even pre-dating concerns about climate change, with concrete seawall construction dating back to 1784 in Boston Harbor, Massachusetts.