Ingegerd Rosborg Editor Drinking Water Minerals and Mineral Balance Importance, Health Significance, Safety Precautions Tai Lieu Chat Luong Drinking Water Minerals and Mineral Balance Ingegerd Rosborg Editor Drinking Water Minerals and Mineral Balance Importance, Health Significance, Safety Precautions Editor Ingegerd Rosborg Department of Sustainable Development, Environmental Science and Technology School of Architecture and the Built Environment KTH Royal Institute of Technology Teknikringen, Stockholm, Sweden ISBN 978-3-319-09592-9 ISBN 978-3-319-09593-6 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-09593-6 Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London Library of Congress Control Number: 2014952026 © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer.
Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.com) Foreword Minerals in Water – A Win-Win Issue for Public Health In the early twenty-first century, drinking water security is rightly a global concern as hundreds of millions of people still lack daily access to clean and safe drinking water. The increasing risks of climate change have brought us to the awareness that in many regions of the world, water security is under increasing threat and cannot be taken for granted.
In more and more locations, people are drinking water that has been treated and recycled from lower-quality water or seawater, while conversely, the sales of bottled mineral water are skyrocketing. Water is essential for life and health, with each adult human being needing to drink on average at least 2 L of water per day to maintain optimum fitness and alert- ness. Water safety is generally linked with the absence of disease-causing bacteria, or pathogens. Yet it is not only the water itself that is crucial to our well-being – the minerals it contains are also vitally important.
We talk of “hard” water (which contains high levels of minerals) and “soft” water (which is more acidic). Yet how much do we really know about the mineral constituents of water? Do we have the public health guidance that we need regarding minerals in water? Are water providers paying sufficient attention to these minerals, and do they need to be better regulated? These are the questions which this book goes a long way towards answering. The health-giving effects of highly mineralized water, found in spas, have been known for thousands of years, certainly since Roman times. Over time, the dangers of high levels of certain elements in water have also become apparent, with trage- dies such as the arsenic present in the drinking water wells of Bangladesh causing wide-spread illness and death.
Arsenic toxicity in drinking water is now declared by the WHO as a public health emergency, which has affected more that 130 million people worldwide. Guidelines have been developed with maximum recommended levels of a range of minerals in water. In general, toxicity levels of minerals with v vi Foreword regard to human health are now quite well known. However, the beneficial health aspects of minerals in water have not been investigated to the same extent.
Broadly, many elements may be beneficial and even essential to health in smaller quantities, and yet harmful in large quantities. In this book for the first time we are given an excellent overview of minerals in water, and their effects in humans and animals. The interactions between the elements is well described, and this is also crucial to determining their health-giving and harmful effects. For instance, many people are aware that calcium is the most abundant element in the human body, and that it is essential for building healthy and strong bones and teeth.
Yet how many know that it acts as an antagonist to magne- sium, which is essential for a healthy heart? Too much calcium prevents the uptake of magnesium, and hence the optimum balance of these two minerals in the water which we drink is vital to our health. Bicarbonate ions are the body’s most impor- tant buffer against acidity. Bicarbonate ions in water help to reduce osteoporosis, and have a strong association with increased longevity, in areas where the water is hard (and bicarbonate alkalinity is high). Together with sodium, potassium and sulfate, these are the macro-elements, for which there is a great deal of evidence with regard to health impacts.
The micro-elements or trace elements such as selenium, lithium, zinc, fluorine, chromium, silicon, copper and boron are less well understood and there is so far less evidence regarding the roles that they play. Selenium deficiency has been implicated in a range of diseases including some cancers. Zinc is essential for healthy growth and a well-functioning immune system. Lithium is protective against several mental health disorders, while boron has been shown to play an important role in joint functioning and so an optimal level of boron can be helpful against arthritis.
The essential role of fluoride in protecting teeth is of course well known. However much more research and subsequent regulation is needed regarding the other micro-elements. The issue of minerals in water is becoming increasingly important as freshwater resources shrink, while ever-growing numbers of people become reliant on treated and recycled water. Water that has been treated by reverse osmosis or distillation is “demineralized”, and drinking such water over a period of time can lead to serious health effects, as has been the case for example in Jordan.
However such treated drinking water can quite simply be remineralized, to the benefit of the population which is dependent upon it. Our current drinking water regulations focus on maximum allowed levels of bacteria and toxins. However with regard to mineral balance, it is just as vital that the levels of minerals are properly regulated with regard to both maximum and minimum levels, and to the ratios among the various elements. Safe re-mineralized water provides a win-win situation for public health – people are protected against harmful elements in the water, while being provided with the balance of vital Foreword vii elements which go a long way towards promoting well-being and longevity.
Around the world, we need increased policy awareness of this issue, with the development and enforcement of regulations which will provide us with clean, safe, remineralized water. Executive Secretary Dr. Ania Grobicki Global Water Partnership (GWP) Drottninggatan 33 SE-111 51 Stockholm, SWEDEN Preface From 1960 to 1990 Northern Europe, especially south west Norway and Sweden, suffered from “Acid Rain”. sulfur dioxide emissions from combustion of coal and oil on the European continent and the British Isles were dissolved in clouds forming sulfuric acid that hit also the Nordic countries, having bedrock and soils of low base mineral content.
The consequences were devastating; crayfish in lakes in barren districts were close to complete extinction, trees in the forest were damaged, and well waters became acidic. Nutrient minerals like calcium and magnesium were washed out from soils, when pH values drastically fell as the alkalinity (HCO3) dropped, while concentrations of aluminum and other toxic elements increased. The acidic well water dissolved copper from pipes, and the intestinal bacterial flora was damaged, causing diarrhea to infants fed on formula prepared on the water. The environment had lost its Mineral Balance, as nutrient elements had decreased and toxic elements increased.
In 2010 drinking water scientists and practitioners from different countries of the world gathered on a conference in Kristianstad, Sweden. About 20 participants decided to write a monograph on the importance of minerals and mineral balance in drinking water. Ten proceeded and fulfilled the project. This monograph is intended as course literature at the university level in different educations; environmental sciences, health protection, medical education, hydrology, hydrogeology, medical geology, and drinking water engineering/production.
In addition, the monograph is a good guide for private and public drinking water pro- ducers on how to preserve or improve the mineral content and mineral balance of specific drinking waters. It is also a valuable guide for the public in understanding and evaluating the health significance of specific tap or bottled waters, since health bringing ranges of elements and element ratios are presented. The first chapter is a historic introduction to minerals from drinking water, followed by a comparison of minerals from drinking water with the daily intake. The following three Chaps., 3, 4 and 5, give a summary of in total 42 nutrient and toxic minerals in water, and their influence on the human body and health.
6 the mineral content and mineral balance in non-corrosive water is presented as well ix x Preface as effects of different water treatments on mineral content and balance. Potential health effects of demineralized water, and the importance of mineral balance in drinking water is mirrored in Chaps. Optimal concentration ranges and element ratios are presented. Future drinking water regulations are suggested in the last chapter, number 9.
Ions are in general presented without charges, and may also appear in water as complex ions. Stockholm, Sweden Ingegerd Rosborg Abstract Drinking water is necessary for life, our most important provision, and for intake it has to be microbiologically safe and free from pollutants and toxic substances. In addition, it can provide us with minerals, different amounts from different water sources. Unhealthy constituents of concern are included in the WHO, EU, and US EPA Guidelines for drinking water quality, as well as constituents that may increase corrosion or cause scaling on pipes or discoloring of clothes.
However, minerals in drinking water are important for the human and animal health, since they appear in ionic form and are generally more easily absorbed in the intestines from water than they are from food. Both macro-elements from drinking water (e. calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), bicarbonate (HCO3) and sulfate(SO4)) appearing at mg/L concen- trations, and micro-elements (e. lithium (Li), molybdenum (Mo), selenium (Se) and boron (B)) at μg/L, can substantially contribute to the daily intake.
Mineral water is to prefer as a source of minerals compared to mineral supplements, as one doesn’t have to remember to take a pill containing the required daily amount. Drinking water is especially important if diet does not provide minerals that are needed. Numerous scientific studies clearly show that hard water, with high concentra- tions of Ca, Mg, HCO3 and SO4 is protective against cardiovascular diseases. Hard water also includes a number of other macro as well as micro-elements, and is also found to be protective against osteoporosis, decreased cognitive function in elderly, decreased birth weight, cancer, and diabetes mellitus.
Mg is identified as specifically important. The ideal Ca:Mg ratio is in the range 2–3:1.