Fort Hays State University FHSU Scholars Repository Master's Theses Graduate School Spring 2014 Negative Experiences in Physical Education Class and Avoidance of Exercise Daphne Brown Fort Hays State University, djbingham@mail.edu Follow this and additional works at: https://scholars.edu/theses Part of the Psychology Commons Recommended Citation Brown, Daphne, "Negative Experiences in Physical Education Class and Avoidance of Exercise" (2014).edu/theses/55 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at FHSU Scholars Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Master's Theses by an authorized administrator of FHSU Scholars Repository. NEGATIVE EXPERIENCES IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION CLASS AND AVOIDANCE OF EXERCISE being A Thesis Presented to the Graduate Faculty of the Fort Hays State University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master in Science by Daphne Brown B., Wichita State University Date_____________________________ Approved______________________ Major Professor Approved_____________________ Chair, Graduate Council ABSTRACT One of our nation’s growing concerns is obesity and the effect it has on one’s health and overall quality of life. Determining the underlying causes for an individual’s avoidance of exercise is crucial in battling the obesity crisis.
The impact negative feelings involving Physical Education classes taken in adolescence may have on one’s current exercise routines and barriers to current participation in exercise were examined in the current study. Measures of barriers to exercise, self-esteem, current exercise routines and negative experiences involving Physical Education classes were examined. A total of 101 participants completed the measures of barriers to exercise, self-esteem, current exercise routines and negative experiences involving Physical Education classes. Results indicated that higher levels of negative experiences involving Physical Education classes are associated with lower levels of self-esteem and current exercise participation and a higher number of reported barriers to exercise.
Results also indicate that the associations between negative experiences in Physical Education, self-esteem, barriers to exercise and current exercise participation do not significantly differ between men and women. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This thesis was made possible thanks to the outstanding Psychology department faculty at Fort Hays State University. I appreciate each and every one of you. Also, a special thank you to my thesis chair, Dr.
Patrick was a crucial support throughout the entire thesis process. Also, I would like to thank my thesis committee, Dr. Joe Engler, Mrs. Gina Smith and Dr.
Jeff Burnett, for their support and expertise. A huge thank you is also needed for my husband Chris, and two sons, Hunter and Hayden for their sacrifices and supportiveness. Last but not least, I would like to thank my Dad, who has always emphasized the importance and value of education. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT.
ii TABLE OF CONTENTS. iii LIST OF TABLES. vi LIST OF APPENDIXES .2 Physical Activity and Levels of Obesity .2 Barriers to Exercise. 5 Healthy Physical and Cognitive Development During Adolescence .7 Anxiety and Stress During Adolescence .9 Adolescent Brain Structure .13 Gender Differences in Adolescence .16 Self-Esteem and Adolescence .17 iii TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) Page Physical Education Class as a Barrier to Exercise .30 Barriers to Exercise Scale.31 Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale .31 The Exercise Questionnaire.
32 Middle School and High School Physical Education Survey .36 Barriers to Exercise .36 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) Page Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale .36 The Exercise Questionnaire .36 Middle School and High School Physical Education Experiences .37 Results for Hypotheses .51 Directions for Future Research .60 v LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 Normal Types of Fears and Anxiety during Childhood and Adolescent Development .12 2 Outcomes for K-12 Physical Education .19 vi LIST OF APPENDIXES Appendix Page A Informed Consent .64 C The Barriers Scale .66 D The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale .69 E The Exercise Questionnaire .71 F Middle School and High School Physical Education Survey .73 G Institutional Review Board Approval .76 vii INTRODUCTION OVERVIEW Physical activity is a key determinant of good health. The Mayo Clinic reports that not only does physical activity promote physical health, but mental health as well. With an array of interventions that have taken place over the past decade to promote exercise and health, many adults still choose not to exercise. One of the strategies adopted by many countries to combat inactivity in adults is to promote physical activity in children and youth.
Adolescence is an important time to learn health related habits that should carry into adulthood (Santrock, 2012). A common intervention used in most developed countries is Physical Education classes. This has a large potential to promote physical activity in adolescence. School Physical Education is an academic course that is mandatory for most adolescents (Fairclough, 2012).
According to the National Association of Sport and Physical Education, or NASPE, one of the national standards for K-12 Physical Education requires that individuals recognize the value of physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression and social interaction (American Alliance for Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 2013). Although Physical Education class has been a required class for decades, it has not seemed to meet this standard and increase physical activity or other healthy habits into adulthood. The inadequacy of this is evidenced by increasing obesity levels and the decline in the number of people obtaining the weekly recommended minutes of exercise (Mayo Clinic 2012). 1 2 Recently emerging research suggests that Physical Education classes may actually have a detrimental effect on the way adolescents view exercise.
Adolescents have reported feeling insecure and embarrassed during Physical Education classes (Van Daalen, 2005). This literature review focuses on adolescent development, exercise and obesity trends, current Physical Education curriculum in middle schools and high schools, barriers to exercise that begin in adolescence and the anxiety, stress, and self-esteem issues common in adolescence. Various coping skills adolescents use when faced with a threatening or stressful situation will be examined. Differences in the way that males and females face adolescence will also be reviewed.
This current study focusses on the implications of anxiety and stress in regards to the adolescent population; and specifically, the future detriments involving self-esteem and exercise motivation that could be encountered if the adolescent is subject to stress and anxiety during Physical Education classes. The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of anxiety caused by Physical Education classes in adolescence and the short term and long term repercussions, i. lower levels of self-esteem, possible exercise anxiety and exercise avoidance. Literature Review Physical Activity Levels and Obesity Physical activity levels of adolescents continue to steadily decline; only 3% of adolescents aged 12-15 are attaining the Center for Disease Control’s daily recommended minutes for physical activity (Camhi, Phillips & Young, 2011).
This pattern of inactivity 3 appears to continue into adulthood. The National Health Interview Survey-Youth Risk Behavior Survey confirms that levels of physical activity begin to decrease during early adolescence and decrease further as one enters into adulthood (Krouscas, 1999). The benefits of regular physical activity have been widely publicized. Benefits include, but are not limited to, decreased risk of cardiovascular disease, decreased risk of diabetes, and decreased risk of depression (Mayo Clinic, 2012).
Surprisingly, even with the available knowledge pertaining to the documented benefits of regular exercise, 4 out of 10 adults remain sedentary; they never engage in physical activity or exercise (CDC, 2012). Obesity and physical inactivity are two of our nation’s top health concerns. Obesity can occur when an individual consumes more calories than burned with physical activity. Physical activity can combat obesity by increasing calories burned, whereas a sedentary lifestyle decreases calories burned (Flora, 2007).
Obesity has an alarming economic impact on the United States health care system. According to the CDC, 147 billion dollars were spent on direct and indirect medical expenses for obese healthcare patients. The economic and health implications associated with inactivity and obesity warrant immediate attention. The United States government has worked diligently for decades to implement a variety of strategies to promote health and educate children and adults on the importance of participating in physical activity.
In 2001, Congress granted the CDC $125 billion 4 dollars to launch a program, entitled VERB, which means “an action word” (Collin & Wechsler, 2008), directed at encouraging children to develop healthy habits that would last a lifetime (Collins & Wechsler, 2008). VERB is a media campaign with a goal of increasing and maintaining physical activity among children aged nine to thirteen years. Bush launched a campaign in 2002, entitled The Healthier U. The goal behind the initiative was to help Americans, especially children, live longer and healthier lives.
The President’s Healthier U. initiative consisted of four goals that should benefit Americans and their health: be physically active every day; eat a nutritious diet; get preventive screenings; and make healthy choices concerning alcohol, tobacco, drugs and safety (Federal Food and Drug Administation, 2004). The current president and first lady have equally emphasized the importance of fitness and nutrition. Some of the items on President and Michelle Obama’s agenda in targeting obesity have been to have healthier school lunches, ban soda and snack machines in schools, and encouraging children to join the Presidents fitness challenge.
The Obama’s have entitled the current fitness initiative “Let’s Move” (letsmove.gov, 2012) The World Health Organization also actively promotes healthy lifestyles for individuals of all ages. Currently the World Health Organization is promoting healthier habits among individuals who are working. Employers are encouraged to implement physical fitness routines for their employees into their workday. Another popular intervention and trend in the United States regarding obesity is health fitness clubs.
The number of health clubs and resources available to combat obesity is continually growing. The attorney general reports that nearly 40 million Americans belong to more than 26,000 5 health clubs in the United States today. Having a gym membership and using it are two different things. Eighty percent of people who purchase a gym membership use the membership only five times a month or less.
Despite the many efforts to increase physical activity and decrease obesity, the obesity epidemic continues to grow. Determining the common variables that prevent Americans from participating in and enjoying regular exercise is an important element in fighting the obesity epidemic. Barriers to Exercise With rates of obesity on the rise, healthcare providers and researchers have been trying to gain a better understanding of the factors that motivate or inhibit individuals to exercise. For many individuals, low perceived self-efficacy regarding ability to exercise and stiffness or soreness are unpleasant feelings they may be associating with exercise.
All of these unpleasant feelings may be avoidance promoting experiences (Ulmer, Stetson, & Salmon, 2010). Experiential avoidance occurs when and individual avoids a situation that is difficult or causes discomfort. Previous negative experiences with exercise could cause an individual to feel inadequate, creating a barrier to future participation in exercise. The individual would rather avoid activities that are associated with negative experiences.
Current studies have suggested one common barrier that prohibits individuals from participating in regular exercise is lack of confidence due to low self-esteem (Brinthaupt, Kang, & Anshel, 2010). Negative self-concept has been documented as being related to avoiding exercise and physical activity. Positive self-concept has also 6 been acknowledged as a key factor in predicting one’s participation is exercise (Cumming et al. Individuals with low self -confidence often fear they will appear inadequate while exercising (Brinthaupt, Kang, & Anshel, 2010).
Minimal research exists pertaining to what causes this lack of confidence concerning exercise. Current research does suggest that individuals lack self-confidence to participate in exercise; but why they lack the self-confidence has yet to be identified. Personal beliefs and perceptions regarding exercise should be identified in the research. Also, factors and experiences that inhibit an individual’s desire to participate in physical activity, or create a pathway for lack of confidence regarding exercise, should be discovered.
How an individual has experienced exercise in the past, may be a key in understanding the reasons why most of the adult do not population currently does not participate in regular exercise. If individuals perceive themselves as insufficient or inadequate regarding exercise, avoidance of exercise is likely to occur.