University of Pennsylvania ScholarlyCommons Honors Theses (PPE) Philosophy, Politics and Economics 5-9-2018 The Lasting Impact of Subsistence Style on Moral Norms and Attitudes: How the Way We Used to Eat Shapes Our Morality Today Keunyoung Ma University of Pennsylvania Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.edu/ppe_honors Part of the Multicultural Psychology Commons, Place and Environment Commons, Regional Sociology Commons, Social Psychology Commons, and the Sociology of Culture Commons Ma, Keunyoung, "The Lasting Impact of Subsistence Style on Moral Norms and Attitudes: How the Way We Used to Eat Shapes Our Morality Today" (2018). This paper is posted at ScholarlyCommons.edu/ppe_honors/34 For more information, please contact repository@pobox. The Lasting Impact of Subsistence Style on Moral Norms and Attitudes: How the Way We Used to Eat Shapes Our Morality Today Abstract In the last few decades, the field of cultural psychology has received increasing attention due to the recognition that individual actions and thoughts are guided by more than one’s biology. Layering in the cultural context in which people exist has enriched our understanding of the human psyche but has also raised questions about the origins of cultural differences.
This thesis explores one possible explanation, namely the historical subsistence style of a region. In the most basic sense, subsistence style refers to the way we used to eat, whether it be farming, herding, or hunting, and some cultural psychologists have found evidence suggesting that subsistence styles – even if they are no longer practiced – continue to shape contemporary cultures and their conceptions of morality. This thesis evaluates the theoretical underpinnings of Subsistence Style Theory and extrapolates its implications to moral attitudes and norms, including human rights, upheld by various cultures. Keywords cultural psychology, morality, norms, attitudes, subsistence style, human rights, individualism, collectivism Disciplines Multicultural Psychology | Place and Environment | Regional Sociology | Social Psychology | Sociology of Culture This article is available at ScholarlyCommons: https://repository.edu/ppe_honors/34 The Lasting Impact of Subsistence Style on Moral Norms and Attitudes: How the Way We Used to Eat Shapes Our Morality Today Author: Keunyoung Ma Submitted to the Philosophy, Politics and Economics Program at the University of Pennsylvania in partial fulfillment of the requirements for Honors Thesis Advisor: Edward Royzman Date of Submission: May 9, 2018 Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .5 CHAPTER 1: THE ROLE OF CULTURE IN SHAPING PSYCHOLOGY .2 Sociocultural Ecologies: Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft .3 Cultural Orientations: Collectivism and Individualism .4 Criticisms and Vulnerabilities .13 CHAPTER 2: SUBSISTENCE STYLE THEORY .1 Rice Theory of Culture: Diverging Legacies of Rice and Wheat .2 Evaluation of Rice Theory and Alternative Theories .3 Culture of Honor Theory: Legacy of Violence Rooted in Pastoralism .4 Evaluation of Culture of Honor Theory and Alternative Theories .34 CHAPTER 3: THE ROLE OF CULTURE IN SHAPING MORALITY .1 Mechanisms of Norm Persistence .2 Culture to Morality .3 Culturally-Divided Rights: Economic, Social, Cultural vs.
Civil and Political .4 A Potential Explanation: Individual vs.52 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to thank my advisor Edward Royzman for his constant guidance and support – this thesis could not have not been written, let alone conceived, without him. I credit him with not only helping me articulate the focus of this thesis but also with furthering my interest in moral psychology and cultural psychology through his capstone seminar on Obedience. Despite a packed schedule, Ed was always generous with his time, wisdom, and encouragement – he introduced me to Professor Paul Rozin whose expertise in cultural psychology helped me refine my thesis proposal; Ed also patiently supported me through a nerve-wracking computer crash that nearly erased my entire thesis. In many ways, he exemplifies the ideal educator, providing a rare kind of learning experience and mentorship to every student he interacts with and teaches.
For this and so much more, I am incredibly grateful to have him as my professor, advisor, and lifelong mentor. I also want to thank Doug Paletta, my advisor under the PPE Program, whose genuine care for students and our success largely influenced my decision to pick PPE as my major. Since sophomore year, I have relied on him for guidance and knowledge, and without exception, he responded with kindness, calmness, and humor. He helped me navigate matters even beyond the PPE Department, whether it was supporting me with the addition of a graduate certificate in Global Human Rights or brainstorming different ways to plan my academic schedule for future semesters.
Doug’s responsiveness to his students’ concerns, hopes, and interests has unquestionably enriched my experience as a PPE major as well as a Penn student. 3 ABSTRACT In the last few decades, the field of cultural psychology has received increasing attention due to the recognition that individual actions and thoughts are guided by more than one’s biology. Layering in the cultural context in which people exist has enriched our understanding of the human psyche but has also raised questions about the origins of cultural differences. This thesis explores one possible explanation, namely the historical subsistence style of a region.
In the most basic sense, subsistence style refers to the way we used to eat, whether it be farming, herding, or hunting, and some cultural psychologists have found evidence suggesting that subsistence styles – even if they are no longer practiced – continue to shape contemporary cultures and their conceptions of morality. This thesis evaluates the theoretical underpinnings of Subsistence Style Theory and extrapolates its implications to moral attitudes and norms, including human rights, upheld by various cultures. 4 INTRODUCTION For my senior honors thesis, I wanted to connect the academic interests that have shaped my time at Penn, ranging from moral psychology to global human rights, and explore their intersection vis-à-vis culture. In particular, I was driven by the question, “Why do moral norms and attitudes vary by culture?” In the Obedience capstone taught by Professor Royzman, we debated whether or not Adolf Eichmann, a high-ranking Nazi SS officer, was wickedly evil in nature or simply complying with the norms of his environment.
Philosopher Hannah Arendt has famously argued for the latter perspective using the term “banality of evil,” which describes the capacity for destructive obedience that exists in all of us and can materialize under specific circumstances. 1 According to Arendt’s theory, Eichmann’s actions were culturally influenced – in the culture fostered by the Nazi regime, ordinary people without sadistic or anti-Semitic tendencies were able to commit extraordinary crimes against humanity. The debate between nature and nurture emerged in my human rights courses as well. Are human rights universal or culturally-determined? The history and practice of human rights suggest the latter, or at least that if there are universally-recognized rights, cultures support and enforce them differently.
The most notable distinction is between Western and Eastern countries and their preferential support for political and civil rights and economic, social, and cultural rights, respectively. In the “West,” referring to developed, wealthy, and individualistic countries, political and civil rights such as the right to a fair trial and to free speech are considered more important than economic, social, cultural rights such as the right to healthcare and to adequate housing. The trend is flipped for Eastern countries who are typically developing, collectivistic, or both. 1 Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem (München: Piper, 1964).
5 With the understanding that human rights are moral claims that aim to set the minimum standard of decent and dignified life, human rights are necessarily a category of moral norms. Thus, if conceptions of morality differ across cultures then it follows that those of human rights are also culturally-determined. Essentially, this speculation is reflective of the moral universalism vs. relativism debate which is ongoing and contentious.
This thesis presumes that morality, at least in some part, is shaped by culture and examines this complex part of human psychology through a cultural lens in order to assess a possible explanation for the cultural differences in morality and by extension human rights. The objective of this thesis is not to add new knowledge to the relevant disciplines; rather, it is to connect the insights from existing literature and research on cultural orientations, subsistence style theories, and notions of morality. By doing so, I hope to shed light on an interesting, albeit obscure, perspective on the causal mechanisms behind contemporary cultures and their manifestations in moral attitudes and behaviors. I do not make grandiose claims or predictions about cultures around the world, how they will change in the future, and what that implies for the conception of morality.
Instead, I offer criticisms and alternative explanations for every theory I discuss, caveats to the disciplines and premises that guide this thesis, and a philosophical discussion at the end to invoke thoughtful and inquisitive reflection on the part of the reader. Chapter 1 lays the groundwork for the thesis, providing an overview of the role of culture in shaping individual and collective psychology. Chapter 2 discusses two theories that support Subsistence Style Theory, which offers a possible and/or partial explanation for cultural differences. Finally, Chapter 3 attempts to answer the question “so what?” by exploring the 6 human rights implications of cultural orientations that have evolved from historical subsistence styles.
7 CHAPTER 1: THE ROLE OF CULTURE IN SHAPING PSYCHOLOGY Culture is critical to virtually every aspect of society, shaping institutions, ideas, and behaviors of humankind. Social theorists and anthropologists understand culture as a dynamic force that is not only an inner state (feelings and experience) but also a vehicle for commitments, utterances, and actions – a view known as the “subjective-behavioral approach.” 2 According to cultural sociologist Ann Swidler, culture shapes behavior by providing a repertoire of habits, styles, and skills upon which people rely to operate, and it also consists of meaningful constructs such as beliefs, rituals, art forms, language, and stories. 3 Richard Shweder, a cultural anthropologist, highlights that culture is constructed and inherited by members of a community, the boundaries of which need not be national or ethnic. 4 A differentiated and legitimate culture can exist for any community whose members share key beliefs and behaviors.
Despite their core similarity, however, various subgroups and individuals within a culture can still vary in meaningful and large ways. 5 This thesis embraces the above understanding of culture and is primarily concerned with the dimension of culture that includes norms and rules that regulate and promote certain human activities and thoughts. To better understand the ways in which culture (external influence) can shape psychology (internal influence), including morality, a closer look at cultural psychology and moral psychology is warranted. 2 Wuthnow, Meaning and Moral Order: Explorations in Cultural Analysis, (1987).
3 Swidler, “Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies.” American Sociological Review, vol. 4 Schweder et al., “The Cultural Psychology of Development: One Mind, Many Mentalities.” Handbook off Child Psychology: Theoretical Models Of Human Development, (2006). 5 Jensen, “Different worldviews, different morals: America’s culture war divide.” Human Development, vol.1 Cultural Psychology Cultural psychology is the study of how cultures reflect and shape the psychological processes of their members – it contextualizes individual psychology through the lens of social practices and ideas. While some cultural psychologists, such as cross-cultural psychologists, search for psychological processes that are universal, others compare differences in thought patterns and behaviors within and across cultures.
The field emerged in response to Western psychologists’ failure to replicate laboratory findings in non-Western settings, a phenomenon that supported Shweder’s theory that the psyche and culture are mutually constructed and inseparable. 6 Therefore, Western, educated, industrialized, rich and democratic (W.) populations, who were overrepresented in psychological research, could no longer be considered the universal standard for human behaviors and thoughts. 7 Indeed, psychologists are increasingly discovering that core values and cognitive processes can vary greatly across cultures and that these more-informed findings can better explain and predict people’s behaviors and thoughts. The following theories and research in this thesis assume that cultures are inherited from past generations yet dynamic, continually adapting to potential changes in the demographic, ecology, and economy of regions.