Signals and Communication Technology Pramode K. Verma · Mayssaa El Rifai Kam Wai Clifford Chan Multi-photon Quantum Secure Communication Signals and Communication Technology www.com More information about this series at http://www.com/series/4748 www. Verma Mayssaa El Rifai • Kam Wai Clifford Chan Multi-photon Quantum Secure Communication 123 www. Verma Kam Wai Clifford Chan School of Electrical School of Electrical and Computer Engineering and Computer Engineering University of Oklahoma University of Oklahoma Norman, OK, USA Norman, OK, USA Mayssaa El Rifai School of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Oklahoma Norman, OK, USA ISSN 1860-4862 ISSN 1860-4870 (electronic) Signals and Communication Technology ISBN 978-981-10-8617-5 ISBN 978-981-10-8618-2 (eBook) https://doi.1007/978-981-10-8618-2 Library of Congress Control Number: 2018949888 © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
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The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore www.com Preface Information is the currency of the modern age. Security of information will continue to be of paramount importance in the foreseeable future. A practical way of transferring unconditionally secure information does not exist today. Quantum key distribution (QKD) technologies come close, but they too are unconditionally secure only to the extent key (in other words, random information) transfers are involved.
In order, then, for unconditionally secure information to be transferred, one must resort to using the securely transferred keys as a one-time pad, and X-or them with the payload information. This book explores alternative ways that can accomplish secure information transfer without the need for a quantum channel as in the case of QKD-based techniques. We do not claim that the techniques presented here lead to theoretical or unconditional security, although we believe it can come close to those based on QKD techniques. Except for an interesting technology presented in Chaps.
11 and 12, the techniques presented in this book do not need conventional encryption. Most of the work presented in this book has been practically realized, albeit in a laboratory environment. Our objective has been to offer a proof of concept rather than build a rugged instrument that can withstand the rigors of a commercial environment. A word about contemporary encryption techniques: First, no encryption tech- nology other than those based on a one-time pad has been shown to be provably secure.
From a practical standpoint, however, techniques based on a one-way mathematical function do meet the security requirements of most applications if the computing power available to the intruder is within the currently anticipated limits of computing power. The mathematical function itself behind an encryption algo- rithm is considered acceptable if the computing effort associated with a proposed cryptanalytic attack is not less than the computing effort necessary for a brute force attack. The encryption techniques presented in this book (except in Chap. 4 and the last two chapters) have the following things in common: Encryption is carried out in a streaming manner as data is generated.
No prior exchange of keys is involved. To avoid man-in-the-middle attack, the communicating parties are, however, expected v www.com vi Preface to have a common initialization vector which can be updated as frequently as desired. In the multistage protocol, Alice and Bob choose their respective keys themselves, separately and independently of each other, with no need to inter- communicate their keys. We can reduce the transmission penalty by reducing the multistage transmission to single-stage transmission.
In this case, however, keys must be exchanged, but they can be updated frequently as a nonlinear function of the actual data exchanged and the initialization vector. Of course, the single-stage mechanics can revert to the multistage configuration obviating the need for key exchange, or for generating a fresh seed key, as often as desired. It is the authors’ hope that the work presented here will lead to the exploration of additional techniques that can deepen our understanding and help develop a wider arsenal of secure information transfer instruments that can be applied to a variety of emerging scenarios in a practically realizable manner. A brief synopsis of the chapters in this book is as follows.
Chapter 1 of the book presents a general introduction to cryptography including its historical evolution over the past couple of thousand years. The chapter con- cludes by addressing the shortcomings of cryptography as practiced today and points to the need for introducing additional techniques that can withstand the conflicting demands of simplicity of realization and increasing cryptographic strength. In particular, it points to the need for the use of quantum mechanics based techniques in cryptography. Chapter 2 gives the mathematical background of quantum mechanics used in the rest of the book.
The abstract concept of a qubit as the quantum extension of a classical bit is first introduced. Characteristics of photons are then covered to lay the foundation for multi-photon communication. An exposition of the polarization degree of freedom of photons in the multi-photon regime is made. Chapter 3 of the book offers a discussion of quantum key distribution techniques as practiced today along with their strengths and limitations.
Protocols like BB84 and the related techniques, such as E91, B92, SARG04, and decoy states, are covered in this chapter. Chapter 4 discusses a class of quantum communication protocols called KCQ that exploits the inherent quantum noise in measurement to protect information in transit. The KCQ protocol generally permits multiple photons in a signal pulse. A particular realization of KCQ, the widely reported Y-00 protocol, is discussed.
It offers a convenient introduction to the rest of the book because the additional techniques presented in the book are also based on multi-photon technology. Chapter 5 introduces the multi-photon three-stage protocol for realizing security without the need for conventional cryptography as necessary accompaniment for implementing QKD-based encryption techniques. The chapter describes the real- ization of the three-stage multi-photon protocol in free-space optics. Chapter 6 generalizes the three-stage protocol into a family of multistage pro- tocols.
It compares the multistage protocol with single-photon protocols and illus- trates how a multi-photon protocol can be made secure against man-in-the-middle attack. Since a multi-photon protocol is, in general, subject to photon-siphoning attacks, the protocol introduces another variable to thwart such attacks.com Preface vii Chapter 7 presents a security analysis of the multistage protocol assessing its vulnerability to known security attacks. It shows that the multistage protocol can offer quantum level security under certain conditions. Chapter 8 analyzes intercept-and-resend and photon number splitting attacks in the multistage multi-photon protocol.
It lays down the conditions under which the multistage multi-photon protocol can approach the strength of a quantum-secure protocol. Chapter 9 extends the application space of the multistage multi-photon protocol to wireless communication. It examines the viability of using the multistage multi-photon protocol for secure key distribution in the IEEE 802. Chapter 10 presents a unique way of using the polarization channel of a fiber optic cable to detect the presence of an intruder.
This layer-1 based intrusion detection system prohibits an adversary from capturing any information flowing on the cable. 11, we use the polarization channel to transfer keys to encrypt any channel on the fiber optic cable using conventional symmetric cryptography. The novelty lies in using the polarization channel as a convenient way to securely transfer symmetric encryption keys among the communicating parties. Chapter 12 extends conventional cryptographic techniques to offer an ultra-secure router-to-router key exchange system based on the multistage protocol.
The routers can be connected through a range of diverse transmission media. Norman, USA Pramode K. Verma May 2018 Mayssaa El Rifai Kam Wai Clifford Chan www.com Acknowledgements This book is the outcome of collaborative effort among many individuals associated with the Quantum Optics Laboratory of the University of Oklahoma—Tulsa, and from those associated with other universities and institutions. The authors would like to thank Dr.
Subhash Kak from Oklahoma State University for his seminal work on the three-stage protocol that inspired them to explore this territory. Kak and Dr. Yuhua Chen from the University of Houston have participated in several discussions over the past 10 years during our investi- gation. Gregory MacDonald’s doctoral work and his continuing collaboration on the use of the polarization channel as a communication medium has helped us refine our approach to make its best use for cryptography.
Robert Huck has offered deep insight into all experimental work carried out in the laboratory. Huck’s guidance and support, much of our work would have remained unexplored. The support of Dr., throughout these investigations and especially in equipping the Quantum Optics Lab is gratefully acknowledged. Several students received their Master’s and doctoral degrees based on their research in the Quantum Optics Laboratory.
Much of this book is based on their published works—they form the backbone of this book. The authors are grateful to Shweta Bhosale, Bhagyashri Darunkar, Nilambari Gawand, Rasha El Hajj, Sayonnha Mandal, Rupesh Nomula, Nishaal Parmar, Nikhil Punekar, Mitun Talukder, Farnaz Zamani, and Lu Zhang, who led many investigations related to their research. The outcome of their research reflects throughout this book. Pramode Verma would like to thank his wife Gita for her support during the preparation of the book, and especially for singlehandedly assuming the burden of our physical relocation while this book was work-in-progress.
Mayssaa El Rifai would like to thank her beloved family: her dad Jihad, mom Maha, sisters Rihab and Riham, husband Samer, and daughter Rita for their encouragement and support during the writing phase of this book. Kam Wai Chan would like to thank his wife Chung Ki for her support during the preparation of this book as well as throughout the years.com Contents 1 Introduction .2 Classical Cryptography Limitations .3 Quantum Cryptography as a Solution .4 Post-quantum Cryptography .1 Lattice-Based Cryptography .3 Hash-Based Cryptography .4 Code-Based Cryptography .5 Scope and Contributions of This Book .6 Organization of This Book .1 Basic Concepts in Quantum Information .1 Quantum State and Qubit .4 Mixed States and Density Operators .5 No-Cloning Theorem .2 Quantum Theory of Photons .1 Quantization of Electromagnetic Field .com xii Contents 2.3 Representing Qubit Using Polarization States of a Photon .4 Multi-photon Polarization States and Stokes Vector .5 Polarization Rotation and Mueller Matrices for Multi-photon States. 57 3 Quantum Key Distribution .2 Single Photon-Based QKD Protocols .1 The BB84 Protocol .3 Use of Weak Coherent States in QKD .1 Photon-Number-Splitting Attack .2 The SARG04 Protocol .3 The Decoy-State Method .4 The COW Protocol .4 Entangled Photon-Based QKD Protocol .1 Quantum Entanglement and Bell’s Inequality .5 Challenges of Current Approaches of QKD. 82 4 Secure Communication Based on Quantum Noise .2 Keyed Communication in Quantum Noise (KCQ) .1 KCQ Coherent-State Key Generation with Binary Detection .2 Current Experimental Status .3 Comparison Between QKD and KCQ .3 Security Analysis of KCQ .1 Information-Theoretic (IT) Security .2 Complexity-Theoretic (CT) Security.
94 5 The Three-Stage Protocol: Its Operation and Implementation .2 Principle of Operation .3 Implementation of the Three-Stage Protocol Over Free Space Optics (FSO) .