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Tài liệu nghiên cứu Understanding semantics understanding language, tổng hợp lý thuyết và thực hành, cung cấp kiến thức chuyên sâu về .

Trường đại học

University of Düsseldorf

Chuyên ngành

General Linguistics

Người đăng

Ẩn danh

Thể loại

textbook

2002

273
0
0

Phí lưu trữ

55 Point

Mục lục chi tiết

Preface

1. PART I BASIC CONCEPTS AND PHENOMENA

1.1. Meaning and semantics

1.1.1. Levels of meaning

1.1.2. Sentence meaning and compositionality

1.1.2.1. Syntactic structure and combination rules
1.1.2.2. The principle of compositionality

1.2. Checklist

1.3. Further reading

1.4. Notes

2. Descriptive, social and expressive meaning

2.1. Meanings are concepts

2.1.1. The meaning of a word

2.1.2. The meaning of a sentence

2.2. Descriptive meaning and reference

2.3. Denotations and truth conditions

2.4. Proposition and sentence type

2.5. Meaning and social interaction: social meaning

2.5.1. Expressions with social meaning

2.5.2. Social meaning in Japanese

2.6. Meaning and subjectivity: expressive meaning

2.6.1. Social versus expressive meaning

2.7. Connotations

2.8. Checklist

2.9. Exercises

2.10. Further reading

2.11. Notes

3. Meanings and readings

3.1. Homonymy, polysemy and vagueness

3.2. Sentence readings and meaning shifts

3.3. Interpretation in context

3.4. Disambiguation and elimination

3.5. The Principle of Consistent Interpretation

3.6. Meaning shifts and polysemy

3.7. Checklist

3.8. Exercises

3.9. Further reading

3.10. Notes

4. Meaning and logic

4.1. Donald Duck and Aristotle

4.2. The Principle of Polarity

4.3. Logical properties of sentences

4.4. Logical relations between sentences

4.5. Logical relations involving logically true or false sentences

4.6. Logical relations under the assumption of contingency

4.7. Logical relations between words

4.8. Logic and meaning

4.8.1. The semantic status of logical equivalence

4.8.2. The semantic status of logical entailment

4.9. Logic and semantics

4.10. Checklist

4.11. Exercises

4.12. Further reading

4.13. Notes

5. Meaning relations

5.1. The meaning relation

5.2. The notion of a lexical field

5.3. Meronymies

5.4. Checklist

5.5. Exercises

5.6. Further reading

5.7. Notes

6. Predication

6.1. Predications contained in a sentence

6.2. Predicates and arguments

6.3. Major types of verbs

6.4. Referential verb arguments

6.5. Deciding on the number of arguments

6.6. Nouns and adjectives

6.6.1. Major types of nouns

6.6.2. Major types of adjectives

6.6.3. Arguments of nouns and adjectives in predicative use

6.7. Predicate logic notation

6.8. Selectional restrictions of verbs

6.9. The process of fusion

6.10. Selectional restrictions and meaning shifts

6.11. Summary

6.12. Checklist

6.13. Exercises

6.14. Further reading

6.15. Notes

7. PART II THEORETIC AL APPROACHES

7.1. Meaning components

7.2. The structuralist approach

7.2.1. Language as a system of signs

7.2.2. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations

7.3. Applying the structuralist approach to meaning

7.3.1. Semantic units: morphemes and lexemes

7.3.2. Paradigmatic and syntagmatic semantic relations

7.3.3. Binary semantic features

7.3.4. Application to paradigmatic relations

7.3.5. Application to combinatorial meaning properties

7.3.6. Ideal properties of semantic features

7.3.7. Evaluation of the binary feature approach

7.4. Dowty’s decompositional semantics

7.5. Jackendoff’s Conceptual Semantics

7.6. Semantic primes: Wierzbicka’s Natural Semantic Metalanguage

7.7. Summary and evaluation of the approaches to decomposition

7.8. Checklist

7.9. Exercises

7.10. Further reading

7.11. Notes

8. Meaning and language comparison

8.1. Relativism and universalism

8.2. Berlin and Kay’s investigation of colour terms

8.3. Consequences

8.4. Checklist

8.5. Exercises

8.6. Further reading

8.7. Notes

9. Meaning and cognition

9.1. Categories and concepts

9.2. The traditional model of categorization

9.3. Degrees of membership

9.4. The prototype model of categorization

9.5. What kinds of entities are prototypes?

9.6. Which features make up the prototype?

9.7. The hierarchical organization of categories

9.7.1. The basic level

9.7.2. Properties of the basic level

9.8. Challenges to Prototype Theory

9.8.1. Graded membership vs graded structure

9.9. Semantics and Prototype Theory

9.10. Flexible concepts: vagueness

9.11. Means of differentiation

9.12. Personal knowledge vs cultural knowledge

9.13. The apple juice question

9.14. Cultural knowledge vs semantic knowledge

9.15. Summary

9.16. Checklist

9.17. Exercises

9.18. Further reading

9.19. Notes

10. Sentence meaning and formal semantics

10.1. Japanese numerals: a simple example of a compositional analysis

10.1.1. The system of numerals

10.1.2. The general scheme

10.2. A small fragment of English

10.2.1. The grammar of the fragment

10.2.2. The predicate logic language PL-F: its grammar

10.3. Translating the fragment into predicate logic

10.4. Model-theoretic semantics

10.4.1. A model for PL-F

10.4.2. Interpretation rules for PL-F

10.4.3. Application to the translations of fragment sentences

10.5. Model-theoretic semantics

10.6. Possible-world semantics

10.7. Logical properties and relations

10.8. The scope and limits of possible-world semantics

10.8.1. Scope and potential

10.8.2. Possible-world semantics vs mentalistic semantics

10.8.3. The development of possible-world semantics

10.9. Checklist

10.10. Exercises

10.11. Further reading

10.12. Notes

References

Index

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00-Semantics-Pre(reprint)-cp 8/8/07 09:52 Page i Understanding Language Series Series Editors: Bernard Comrie and Greville Corbett 00-Semantics-Pre(reprint)-cp 8/8/07 09:52 Page ii ALSO IN THE UNDERSTANDING LANGUAGE SERIES PUBLISHED: UNDERSTANDING PHONOLOGY, SECOND EDITION Carlos Gussenhoven and Haike Jacobs UNDERSTANDING PRAGMATICS Jef Verschueren UNDERSTANDING SYNTAX, SECOND EDITION Maggie Tallerman UNDERSTANDING MORPHOLOGY Martin Haspelmath FORTHCOMING: UNDERSTANDING CHILD LANGUAGE ACQUISITION David Singleton and Lisa Ryan UNDERSTANDING MORPHOLOGY, SECOND EDITION Martin Haspelmath and Andrea D. Sims UNDERSTANDING PHONETICS Patricia Ashby UNDERSTANDING SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Lourdes Ortega UNDERSTANDING SOCIOLINGUISTICS Enam Al-Wer 00-Semantics-Pre(reprint)-cp 8/8/07 09:52 Page iii Understanding Semantics Sebastian Löbner Professor of General Linguistics, University of Düsseldorf 00-Semantics-Pre(reprint)-cp 8/8/07 09:52 Page iv First edition published 2002 By Hodder Education Published 2013 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY, 10017, USA Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Copyright © 2002, Sebastian Löbner All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. The advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of going to press, but neither the authors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN 13: 978-0-340-73198-7 (pbk) Typeset in 10/12pt Palatino by Phoenix Photosetting, Chatham, Kent 00-Semantics-Pre(reprint)-cp 8/8/07 09:52 Page v Contents Preface xi PART I BASIC CONCEPT S AND PHENOMENA 1 1 Meaning and semantics 3 1.1 Levels of meaning 3 1.2 Sentence meaning and compositionality 11 1.2 Syntactic structure and combination rules 13 1.3 The principle of compositionality 14 Checklist 16 Further reading 17 Notes 17 2 Descriptive, social and expressive meaning 19 2.1 Meanings are concepts 19 2.1 The meaning of a word 19 2.2 The meaning of a sentence 21 2.1 Descriptive meaning and reference 22 2.2 Denotations and truth conditions 25 2.3 Proposition and sentence type 26 2.3 Meaning and social interaction: social meaning 27 2.1 Expressions with social meaning 27 2.2 Social meaning in Japanese 30 2.4 Meaning and subjectivity: expressive meaning 31 2.2 Social versus expressive meaning 34 2.5 Connotations 35 Checklist 36 00-Semantics-Pre(reprint)-cp 8/8/07 09:52 Page vi vi CONTENTS Exercises 37 Further reading 37 Notes 38 3 Meanings and readings 39 3.2 Homonymy, polysemy and vagueness 42 3.4 Sentence readings and meaning shifts 46 3.2 Interpretation in context 47 3.3 Disambiguation and elimination 47 3.5 The Principle of Consistent Interpretation 52 3.6 Meaning shifts and polysemy 53 Checklist 54 Exercises 54 Further reading 55 Notes 55 4 Meaning and logic 57 4.1 Donald Duck and Aristotle 57 4.2 The Principle of Polarity 60 4.2 Logical properties of sentences 62 4.3 Logical relations between sentences 64 4.5 Logical relations involving logically true or false sentences 69 4.6 Logical relations under the assumption of contingency 71 4.5 Logical relations between words 74 4.6 Logic and meaning 77 4.1 The semantic status of logical equivalence 77 4.2 The semantic status of logical entailment 80 00-Semantics-Pre(reprint)-cp 8/8/07 09:52 Page vii CONTENTS vii 4.3 Logic and semantics 81 Checklist 82 Exercises 82 Further reading 83 Notes 84 5 Meaning relations 85 5.1 The meaning relation 85 5.1 The notion of a lexical field 94 5.4 Meronymies 96 Checklist 97 Exercises 97 Further reading 98 Notes 98 6 Predication 99 6.1 Predications contained in a sentence 99 6.2 Predicates and arguments 101 6.1 Major types of verbs 103 6.2 Referential verb arguments 104 6.3 Deciding on the number of arguments 105 6.4 Nouns and adjectives 106 6.1 Major types of nouns 106 6.2 Major types of adjectives 107 6.3 Arguments of nouns and adjectives in predicative use 109 6.5 Predicate logic notation 110 6.1 Selectional restrictions of verbs 114 6.2 The process of fusion 116 6.3 Selectional restrictions and meaning shifts 117 00-Semantics-Pre(reprint)-cp 8/8/07 09:52 Page viii viii C O N T E N T S 6.8 Summary 119 Checklist 120 Exercises 120 Further reading 121 Notes 121 PART II THEORETIC AL APPROACHES 123 7 Meaning components 125 7.1 The structuralist approach 127 7.1 Language as a system of signs 127 7.2 Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations 129 7.2 Applying the structuralist approach to meaning 130 7.1 Semantic units: morphemes and lexemes 130 7.2 Paradigmatic and syntagmatic semantic relations 131 7.1 Binary semantic features 132 7.2 Application to paradigmatic relations 134 7.3 Application to combinatorial meaning properties 134 7.4 Ideal properties of semantic features 135 7.5 Evaluation of the binary feature approach 138 7.1 Dowty’s decompositional semantics 141 7.2 Jackendoff’s Conceptual Semantics 142 7.5 Semantic primes: Wierzbicka’s Natural Semantic Metalanguage 145 7.6 Summary and evaluation of the approaches to decomposition 148 Checklist 150 Exercises 150 Further reading 151 Notes 151 8 Meaning and language comparison 153 8.3 Relativism and universalism 161 8.4 Berlin and Kay’s investigation of colour terms 163 8.5 Consequences 167 Checklist 168 Exercises 168 Further reading 169 Notes 169 00-Semantics-Pre(reprint)-cp 8/8/07 09:52 Page ix CONTENTS ix 9 Meaning and cognition 171 9.1 Categories and concepts 172 9.1 The traditional model of categorization 174 9.5 Degrees of membership 178 9.6 The prototype model of categorization 178 9.7 What kinds of entities are prototypes? 180 9.8 Which features make up the prototype? 181 9.3 The hierarchical organization of categories 183 9.1 The basic level 183 9.2 Properties of the basic level 185 9.4 Challenges to Prototype Theory 186 9.1 Graded membership vs graded structure 186 9.5 Semantics and Prototype Theory 191 9.3 Flexible concepts: vagueness 194 9.4 Means of differentiation 196 9.1 Personal knowledge vs cultural knowledge 200 9.2 The apple juice question 201 9.3 Cultural knowledge vs semantic knowledge 203 9.7 Summary 206 Checklist 208 Exercises 208 Further reading 209 Notes 209 10 Sentence meaning and formal semantics 211 10.1 Japanese numerals: a simple example of a compositional analysis 211 10.1 The system of numerals 211 10.3 The general scheme 214 10.2 A small fragment of English 215 10.1 The grammar of the fragment 216 10.2 The predicate logic language PL-F: its grammar 219 00-Semantics-Pre(reprint)-cp 8/8/07 09:52 Page x x CONTENTS 10.3 Translating the fragment into predicate logic 222 10.3 Model-theoretic semantics 227 10.1 A model for PL-F 227 10.2 Interpretation rules for PL-F 231 10.3 Application to the translations of fragment sentences 234 10.4 Model-theoretic semantics 235 10.4 Possible-world semantics 236 10.4 Logical properties and relations 241 10.5 The scope and limits of possible-world semantics 243 10.1 Scope and potential 243 10.3 Possible-world semantics vs mentalistic semantics 245 10.4 The development of possible-world semantics 246 Checklist 247 Exercises 248 Further reading 249 Notes 249 References 251 Index 255 00-Semantics-Pre(reprint)-cp 8/8/07 09:52 Page xi Preface For a long time this book was to be co-authored with Bernd Kortmann (University of Freiburg, Germany). Bernd was the one who wrote the book proposal for the publishers, the sample chapter, first versions of two more chapters and, not least importantly, who asked me to join him as a co- author. Even when it turned out that, for a number of reasons, Bernd had to resign from this project, he continued to serve as a critical reader of the various stages through which the chapters in this book went. If it were not for Bernd’s initiative and the original plan of writing it together, I probably would not have written this book. The title of the book, Understanding Semantics, is taken seriously. This textbook is not only meant to be an introduction to the major fields of the discipline, but also to the dominant approaches that shape semantics in its current state of the art. I have been striving to open the view on linguistic meaning from different perspectives. These include the language-internal level of meaning relations, the cognitive level of meanings as concepts in our minds and the ‘objective’ level of truth and reference. As for the phenomena discussed, the book offers a balanced treatment of lexical meaning and sentence meaning. To a certain extent, it also opens the dimension of language comparison. In addition, I have tried to widen the view by including subjects like non-descriptive meaning and processes of interpretation beyond compositional meaning. The result is not an introduction to Löbner semantics. If you work your way through the book, you will be able to continue your studies in various directions. I have done my best to give a correct and balanced account of the phenomena and theories presented. Whenever possible, standard terminology has been used. The way in which the complex matter is organized and presented is, however, certainly my particular way. When reading through the second part, you will find me rather critical in places of each of the approaches described. On the one hand, my criticisms were the natural result of the attempt to present a consistent and comprehensive picture: different theories cover different aspects of the whole and neglect others; sometimes they contradict each other in central points. On the other hand, a critical approach to scientific matters is essential from the very 00-Semantics-Pre(reprint)-cp 8/8/07 09:52 Page xii xii P R E F A C E beginning. Therefore, transparency of notions and argumentation was one of my primary objectives. If you are my ideal reader, you will read the book carefully and completely and thereby gain a complex and coherent view of meaning in language; you will get an idea of what kind of a communica- tional instrument language is; you will acquire the background for going deeper into the matter by reading more advanced semantic literature and you will develop a critical eye for judging, and maybe some day participat- ing in, the scientific discussion. You need not know much about linguistics in order to understand this introduction. All you need is an interest in language and scientific thinking. There is a web page for this book (http://www.de/~loebner/und-sem/) with useful information: correction of errors, answers to frequently asked questions, comments, reviews, etc. My email address is given there. Any feedback is welcome! Acknowledgements There are quite a few people to whom I want to express my sincere grati- tude for their help and support. Bernd’s role has already been mentioned. He and two members of his department, Verena Haser and Lieselotte Anderwald, provided detailed comments on the greater part of the book. Four persons accompanied the manuscript from the first to the last line, not only commenting on it in detail but, much more importantly, constantly encouraging me. These were the editors, Bernard Comrie and Greville Corbett, my Berlin colleague Ewald Lang and my partner Ruth Ropertz. Further thanks go to Volker Beeh for commenting on Chapter 4, and to Tünde Vallyon for providing the Hungarian and Russian data. My daughter Saskia Löbner volunteered as a test reader. Finally, I want to thank Nick Quaintmere for helping with my English, and the Düsseldorf Department for General Linguistics for paying him. Sebastian Löbner Düsseldorf August 2001 01-UnderSemantics-Ch1-cp 04/04/2002 8:12 am Page 1 Part I BASIC CONCEPTS AND PHENOMENA This book consists of two parts: Part I introduces basic concepts and central phenomena investigated in semantics. On this basis, Part II treats the essentials of three major theoretical approaches: structuralist semantics, cognitive semantics and logical (‘formal’) semantics. The first step is to mark out what semantics is about. Being the theory of linguistic meaning, the discipline does not concern meaning in the widest sense of the word, but the meaning of linguistic expressions. Chapter 1 will help to delineate the relevant notion of meaning and the major fields of semantics. In Chapter 2, the notion of meaning is further refined: descrip- tive meaning (responsible for factual information) is distinguished from social meaning and expressive meaning.

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