Construction Technology an illustrated introduction Eric Fleming Construction Technology Construction Technology: an illustrated introduction Eric Fleming Former Lecturer Construction Economics and Building Construction Department of Building Engineering and Surveying Heriot-Watt University c 2005 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd Editorial offices: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK Tel: +44 (0)1865 776868 Blackwell Publishing Inc., 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA Tel: +1 781 388 8250 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd, 550 Swanston Street, Carlton, Victoria 3053, Australia Tel: +61 (0)3 8359 1011 The right of the Author to be identified as the Author of this Work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. First published 2005 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Fleming, Eric.
Construction technology / Eric Fleming.F58 2004 690–dc22 2004008229 ISBN 1-4051-0210-1 A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library Set in 10/12 pt Palatino by TechBooks Printed and bound in India by Replika Press Pvt., Kundli The publisher’s policy is to use permanent paper from mills that operate a sustainable forestry policy, and which has been manufactured from pulp processed using acid-free and elementary chlorine-free practices. Furthermore, the publisher ensures that the text paper and cover board used have met acceptable environmental accreditation standards. For further information on Blackwell Publishing, visit our website: www.com Contents Introduction xi Acknowledgements and Dedication xiii Abbreviations xiv 1 Masonry Construction in Bricks and Blocks 1 Bricks and blocks standards and dimensions 2 Bricks 2 Terminology 2 Brick sizes 2 Nominal sizing 3 Durability of bricks 3 Mortar joints 3 Coordinating sizes 3 Types of brick by shape 4 Kinds of brick by function 4 Brick materials 5 Testing of bricks 5 The bonding of bricks to form walls 5 Convention on thicknesses of walls 8 Types of bond 9 Vertical alignment 14 Honeycomb brickwork 16 Quoins – an alternative definition 16 Half brick thick walls 16 Frog up or frog down 17 ‘Tipping’ 17 Common and facing brickwork 18 Facing brickwork 18 Pointing and jointing 19 General principles of bonding 21 Blocks 22 Block materials 22 Concrete blocks 22 Dense and lightweight concretes 23 Autoclaved aerated concrete 23 Dimensions of standard metric block 23 Whys and wherefores of mortar 25 Cement 25 Lime 26 Sand 27 Water 27 Which mortar mix? 27 ‘Fat’ mixes 28 General rules for selection of mortar 29 vi Contents Mortar additives 30 Mixing in additives 30 Mixing mortar 31 Good or bad weather 32 2 Substructures 34 Excavation generally 34 Topsoil 35 Subsoils 36 General categorisation of subsoils and their loadbearing capacities 37 Foundations 37 The principal considerations 38 Simple foundation calculations 39 The mass of buildings 39 Mass, load and bearing capacity 40 Foundation width and thickness 41 Reinforced concrete foundations 44 Failure of wide, thin, strip foundations 44 Trench fill foundations 45 Critical levels and depths 46 Level 46 Finished ground level 47 Bearing strata 48 Depths and levels 48 Step in foundation 49 Setting out 49 The site plan 49 Where do we put the building? 49 Equipment required for basic setting out 49 Setting out procedure 50 Excavation 53 Marking out the excavation 53 Excavation for and placing concrete foundations – and not wasting money doing it 53 Building masonry walls from foundation up to DPC level 57 Ground floor construction 59 Detail drawings 59 Wall–floor interfaces generally 62 Precautions 62 Solid concrete floors 62 Single and double layer concrete floors with hollow masonry wall 62 Hung floors 64 Hung timber floors 64 Hung timber floor alternatives 66 Hung concrete floors 67 Blockwork substructure 71 3 Walls and Partitions 73 General 73 Requirements 74 Walls – environmental control 75 Heat loss and thermal capacity 75 Contents vii Resistance to weather – precipitation 75 Air infiltration 77 Noise control 79 Fire 79 Dimensional stability 79 Walls of brick and blockwork 81 Insulation of external walls 84 Timber frame construction 88 Traditional timber frame 88 Modern timber frame construction 91 Loadbearing and non-loadbearing internal partitions 96 Expansion joints 99 4 Timber Upper Floors 103 Upper floor joists 103 Linear and point loadings on upper floors 112 Openings in upper floors 113 For pipes 113 For flues 114 For stairs 116 Alternative materials for joisting 118 Sound proofing 120 Modern sound and fire proofing 121 Support of masonry walls 123 Floor finishes 124 Ceiling finishes 124 5 Openings in Masonry Walls 126 For small pipes and cables 126 For larger pipes and ventilators 127 Large openings in masonry walls 127 Alternative sill arrangements 136 Threshold arrangements 137 Partitions of masonry 139 Openings in timber frame walls 141 6 Roof Structure 148 Roof classifications 148 Prefabrication 149 Trussed roofs 150 The trussed rafter 153 Verges meet eaves 159 Roof bracing 160 Flat roofs in timber 162 Insulation, vapour control layers and voids and ventilation 164 Traditional roofs 167 Roof insulation 169 7 Roof Coverings 171 Tile and slate materials 171 Slates 175 viii Contents Plain tiles 175 Interlocking tiles 176 Timber shingles 176 Bituminous shingles 176 Pantiles 177 Spanish and Roman tiles 177 Edges and abutments 178 8 Doors 182 Functions of doors and windows – obvious and not so obvious 182 Types of door 184 Ledged and braced doors 185 Bound lining doors 185 Flush panel doors 187 Panelled doors 188 Pressed panel doors 189 15 pane doors 190 Hanging a door 190 Fire resistant doors 193 Smoke seals 195 Glazing 196 Ironmongery 196 9 Windows 204 Timber casement windows 205 Depth and height of glazing rebates 206 Timber for casement windows 206 Draught stripping materials 206 Hanging the casements 207 Joining the frame and casement members 209 Timber sash and case windows 211 The case 212 The sashes and case together 214 Vertical sliding sash windows 214 Glazing 218 For ordinary glazing work 218 10 Stairs 221 Landings 222 Steps 222 Balustrades 223 Measurements 224 Joining steps to stringer 225 Winders 227 11 Mutual Walls 228 Transmission of sound 228 Calculation of surface density 228 Wall types 229 Fire resistance 231 Contents ix 12 Plumbing and Heating 233 Pipework 233 Pipe fittings – couplings and connections 234 Range of fittings 239 Valves and cocks 241 Services generally 243 Hot and cold water services 243 Soil and ventilation stacks 246 Overflows 246 Water supply from the main 246 Equipment 247 Cold water storage cisterns 248 Hot water storage cylinders 248 Feed and expansion tanks 251 Central heating 252 Piping for central heating systems 253 Emitters 255 Appliances 255 Waste disposal piping and systems 259 Insulation 262 Corrosion 263 Air locking and water hammer 263 First fixings 264 13 Electrical Work 266 Power generation 266 Wiring installation types 267 Sub-mains and consumer control units 268 Sub-circuits 270 Work stages 272 Electrician’s roughing 272 Earth bonding 273 Final fix 275 Testing and certification 275 More on protective devices 275 Wiring diagrams 276 Accessories 277 Appendices: A Maps and Plans 279 B Levelling Using the Dumpy Level 285 C Timber, Stress Grading, Jointing, Floor Boarding 291 D Plain and Reinforced In-situ Concrete 316 x Contents E Mortar and Fine Concrete Screeds laid over Concrete Sub-floors or Structures 322 F Shoring, Strutting and Waling 325 G Nails, Screws, Bolts and Proprietary Fixings 328 H Gypsum Wall Board 341 I DPCs, DPMs, Ventilation of Ground Floor Voids, Weeps 344 J Drawing Symbols and Conventions 353 K Conservation of Energy 355 L Short Pr écis of Selected British Standards 356 Index 380 Introduction One of the many reasons for writing this book any particular Regulations, the date will be was the need to introduce students to a level given, e. of detail which they would gain only with A word about the drawings scattered practical experience on site or in workshops.
through the text. None is to scale although, in The accusation that the text includes too much the majority of instances, all component parts ‘trade’ material could be levelled, but bearing and components shown in any one draw- in mind that many of the students who might ing are in the correct proportion, with the use this text will be potential builders, quan- exception of thin layers or membranes such tity surveyors and building surveyors, then as damp proof courses, felts, etc. which are the inclusion of the trade material is very nec- exaggerated in thickness, following the con- essary. One of the primary functions of cer- vention in architectural drawing practice.
Ap- tainly the builders and quantity surveyors is pendix J shows some of the conventional sym- the need to be able to assess the cost of any bols used. The reader should get to know building operation. Unless they understand these; they are common currency when drawn the processes to be gone through it is impossi- information has to be read. ble for these professionals to give an accurate For the student who has recently left school cost.
They don’t have to be able to physically there may be confusion, for the teaching of do the work but they must know exactly what the use of centimetres in schools does not is involved. So this text is for the ‘early learner’ match up with the agreement by the construc- who has no background in the construction in- tion industry to use only SI (Système Interna- dustry. It is not intended to be an all embrac- tional) units where only the millimetre, metre ing text; the physical size of the book could and kilometre are used to measure length. On not allow that.
So the author has been quite architectural drawings dimensions are given selective in what has been included, the rea- only in millimetres and levels in metres to soning behind the selection being the need to two places of decimals. Students will be ex- introduce the early learner to sufficient infor- pected to produce drawings in this manner mation to allow a general appreciation of the during their courses. Following the conven- more common techniques used in domestic tion on drawings etc., no mention of the unit construction today. of measurement will be made in the text when Emphasis has been given to technical terms these are in millimetres.
Any dimension given and terminology by having them printed in simply as a number must be assumed to be bold on at least the first occasion they are used. Any other measurements will Where these terms are generally confined to have the unit of measurement following the one part of the UK, some alternative forms number, e.30 m meaning metres; 10 600 are given as well. References to Building Reg- kN meaning kilonewtons and so on. ulations should be understood to mean all the There are already hundreds of books on Regulations which are used in England, Wales building construction or on just one aspect and Scotland at the time of writing.
References of it, be it a trade, material or technique(s). to particular Regulations will have the suffixes There must be many more technical papers (England and Wales) or (Scotland) appended. and leaflets and books produced by various Where the reference is to earlier editions of organisations with an interest in the industry. xii Introduction They include the Building Research Establish- how the roof is put together.
Look at the doors ment (BRE), Construction Industry Research and windows and how they interface with the and Information Association (CIRIA), Tim- walls and floors and the ceilings. ber Research and Development Association Experience in teaching the subject to school (TRADA), the British Standards Institution, leavers has brought one difficulty to the fore all the trade and manufacturing associations – which many students have – the inability to vi- the list is endless, but those mentioned are sualise.