Human Factors in Automotive Engineering and Technology Human Factors in Road and Rail Transport Series Editors Dr Lisa Dorn Director of the Driving Research Group, Department of Human Factors, Cranfield University Dr Gerald Matthews Associate Research Professor, Institute for Simulation and Training, University of Central Florida Dr Ian Glendon Associate Professor, School of Psychology, Griffith University Today’s society confronts major land transport problems. Human and financial costs of road vehicle crashes and rail incidents are increasing, with road vehicle crashes predicted to become the third largest cause of death and injury globally by 2020. Several social trends pose threats to safety, including increasing vehicle ownership and traffic congestion, advancing technological complexity at the human-vehicle interface, population ageing in the developed world, and ever greater numbers of younger vehicle drivers in the developing world. Ashgate’s Human Factors in Road and Rail Transport series makes a timely contribution to these issues by focusing on human and organisational aspects of road and rail safety.
The series responds to increasing demands for safe, efficient, economical and environmentally-friendly land-based transport. It does this by reporting on state-of-the-art science that may be applied to reduce vehicle collisions and improve vehicle usability as well as enhancing driver wellbeing and satisfaction. It achieves this by disseminating new theoretical and empirical research generated by specialists in the behavioural and allied disciplines, including traffic and transportation psychology, human factors and ergonomics. The series addresses such topics as driver behaviour and training, in-vehicle technology, driver health and driver assessment.
Specially commissioned works from internationally recognised experts provide authoritative accounts of leading approaches to real-world problems in this important field. Human Factors in Automotive Engineering and Technology Guy H. Walker Heriot-Watt University, UK Neville A. Stanton University of Southampton, UK and Paul M.
Salmon University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia © Guy H. Stanton and Paul M. Salmon 2015 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher.
Stanton and Paul M. Salmon have asserted their right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as the authors of this work. Published by Ashgate Publishing Limited Ashgate Publishing Company Wey Court East 110 Cherry Street Union Road Suite 3-1 Farnham Burlington, VT 05401-3818 Surrey, GU9 7PT USA England www.com British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library The Library of Congress has cataloged the printed edition as follows: Walker, Guy, author. Human factors in automotive engineering and technology / by Guy H.
Stanton and Paul M. pages cm -- (Human factors in road and rail transport) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4094-4757-3 (hbk) -- ISBN 978-1-4094-4758-0 (ebook) -- ISBN 978-1-4724-0628-6 (epub : alk. Automobiles--Design and construction.
Series: Human factors in road and rail transport.2’31--dc23 2014046296 ISBN: 9781409447573 (hbk) ISBN: 9781409447580 (ebk – PDF) ISBN: 9781472406286 (ebk – ePUB) Printed in the United Kingdom by Henry Ling Limited, at the Dorset Press, Dorchester, DT1 1HD Contents List of Figures vii List of Tables ix About the Authors xi Acknowledgements xiii Glossary xv 1 The Car of the Future, Here Today 1 2 A Technology Timeline 13 3 Lessons from Aviation 27 4 Defining Driving 39 5 Describing Driver Error 49 6 Examining Driver Error and its Causes 75 7 A Psychological Model of Driving 95 8 Vehicle Feedback and Driver Situational Awareness 111 9 Vehicle Automation and Driver Workload 131 10 Automation Displays 141 11 Trust in Vehicle Technology 159 12 A Systems View of Vehicle Automation 179 13 Conclusions 193 Appendix 203 Further Reading 273 References 275 Bibliography 295 Index 303 This page has been left blank intentionally List of Figures 1.1 The driving simulator laboratory has been through several iterations in its 20-year history: This is the first, dating from 1995 and based around the front portion of a Ford Orion 2 1.2 The Brunel University Driving Simulator (BUDS) in 2000 2 1.3 The current iteration (2013): The Southampton University Driving Simulator (SUDS) 3 1.4 Sadly, the all-too-common experience is that human factors insights are discovered to be needed too late: Too late to be cheap and too late to be as effective as they could be 11 1.5 By far the best place to employ human factors insights is early in the design process 11 2.1 One of the first implementations of solid-state electronics in vehicles was electronic ignition, which replaced the mechanical distributor and its troublesome contact breaker points 14 2.2 Collision warning with brake support system 21 2.3 Handling management system 22 2.4 Adaptive Cruise Control 23 3.1 Allocation of function (adapted from Singleton, 1989) 35 3.2 Allocation of function matrix 36 4.1 Top level of the HTAoD 45 5.1 The perceptual cycle in driving 52 5.2 Illustration of the multi-modality of a typical infotainment system 56 5.3 Levels of cognitive control (adapted from Rasmussen, 1986) 57 5.4 Percentage of errors implicated in crashes (from Treat et al.5 Contributing factors taxonomy (from Wierwille et al.1 On-road study methodology 76 6.2 The instrumented vehicle (ORTeV) 77 6.3 Frequency of different error types made during on-road study 83 6.4 Participant’s head rotation, gaze and the lateral position of the vehicle during speeding violation event 85 6.5 Participant midway through right-hand turn on the red arrow: Overlaid circles show the straight on green traffic signal (left-hand side of the driver view window) and the red right-hand turn traffic signal (right-hand side of the driver window view) 88 6.6 Head rotation, gaze angle and lateral position during ‘perceptual failure’ error event 90 viii Human Factors in Automotive Engineering and Technology 7.1 Information flow between driver, automatics and vehicle sub-systems (from Stanton and Marsden, 1996) 96 7.2 A group of 29 drivers were asked ‘what do you think the oil warning light means?’ (The correct answer is low oil pressure) 106 7.3 Hypothesised relationship between psychological factors 108 8.1 Quantity of knowledge extracted by the drivers of high and low feedback vehicles across the four encoding categories (n=12) 120 8.2 Median values of da characterising probe recall performance in each of the vehicle feedback conditions 127 9.1 The driver’s view of the road, instruments and secondary task (see bottom-left of picture) 134 9.2 Correct responses to the secondary task in the manual and ACC conditions 136 9.3 Driver reactions to ACC failure 137 10.1 Functional diagram of S&G-ACC 142 10.3 Change detection rates with the three interfaces 150 10.4 Self-reported workload with the three displays 151 11.1 The TPB can be used as a simplified behavioural model within which to situate trust and its effects on behaviour 160 11.2 Trust curves and the relationship between objective system reliability and driver trust: The dotted line is a theoretical trust continuum, whereas the solid curved line is an approximate one based on empirical studies (e., Kantowitz, Hanowski and Kantowitz, 1997; and Kazi et al.3 Indicative trust calibration curve overlain across sampling behaviour curve to reveal an important intermediate region where sampling and trust changes rapidly 170 11.4 Different methods of assessing driver trust can be applied at different points in the system design lifecycle 175 12.1 Results for vehicle speed 184 12.2 Results for lateral position 185 12.3 Results for workload/frustration 186 12.4 Results for overall situational awareness 187 13.1 Hollnagel and Woods’ (2005) self-reinforcing complexity cycle 195 List of Tables 3.1 Types of driver error and their (potential) technological solution 29 3.2 Degrees of automation for driver tasks 37 4.1 Comparison of two-litre saloon cars since 1966 40 5.1 The SHERPA method provides a simple way to systematically and exhaustively identify credible error types based on a task analysis and external error modes 51 5.2 Three types of schema-based errors 53 5.3 Reason’s error taxonomy 54 5.4 Example error types for Reason’s errors and violations taxonomy (adapted from Reason, 1990) 59 5.5 Classification of driver errors (from Reason et al.6 Driver error and incident causation factors (adapted from Wierwille et al.7 Principal causal-factor taxonomy for accident analysis (adapted from Najm et al.8 Contribution of vehicle manoeuvres to road accidents in the UK (adapted from Brown, 1990) 63 5.9 Drivers’ errors as contributing to accidents (adapted from Sabey and Staughton, 1975) 64 5.10 Human error and causal factors taxonomy (from Sabey and Taylor, 1980) 65 5.11 Errors associated with accident scenarios (adapted from Verway et al.12 Generic driver error taxonomy with underlying psychological mechanisms: Action errors 68 5.13 Driver error causal factors 70 5.14 Potential technological solutions for driver errors 71 6.1 CDM probes used during on-road study 78 6.2 Different error types (frequency and proportion of all errors) made by drivers during the on-road study 81 6.3 CDM extract for unintentional speeding violation 84 6.4 CDM extract for intentional speeding violation 86 6.5 Extracts from CDM transcript for ‘perceptual failure’ error 88 8.2 Descriptive analysis of the control measures 118 8.3 Inferential and effect size analysis of the control measures 119 x Human Factors in Automotive Engineering and Technology 8.4 Summary of multiple comparisons for SA profile of high and low feedback vehicle drivers 121 8.5 Results of comparisons between vehicle types across the four encoding categories 122 8.6 Eight levels of the independent variable of vehicle feedback 123 8.7 Number of signal and noise trials per vehicle feedback condition (n=35) 126 10.1 Mapping interface design and the SA elements 143 10.2 Demographic profile of participants 146 10.3 Independent and dependent variables 146 10.4 Descriptions of driving tasks 148 10.5 Calculation of driver response times for each of the task types 148 10.6 Response time percentiles for S&G-ACC 150 10.7 Points at which participants noticed their own vehicle braking 152 10.8 Comments on the three interface designs (where ‘x’ indicates the number of times the comment was made) 152 11.1 Revenge types and their manifestation 172 12.1 Assignment of participants to experimental conditions 182 12.2 Summary results 188 About the Authors Dr Guy H. Walker is an Associate Professor within the Institute for Infrastructure and Environment at Heriot-Watt University in Edinburgh. He lectures on transportation engineering and human factors, and is the author/co-author of over 90 peer-reviewed journal articles and 12 books. He and his co-authors have been awarded the Institute for Ergonomics and Human Factors (IEHF) President’s Medal for the practical application of ergonomics theory, the Peter Vulcan prize for best research paper, and Heriot-Watt’s Graduate’s Prize for inspirational teaching.
Dr Walker has a BSc (Hons) degree in Psychology from the University of Southampton, a PhD in Human Factors from Brunel University, is a Fellow of the Higher Education Academy and is a member of the Royal Society of Edinburgh’s Young Academy of Scotland. His research interests are wide-ranging, spanning driver behaviour and the role of feedback in vehicles, using human factors methods to analyse black-box data recordings, the application of sociotechnical systems theory to the design and evaluation of transportation systems through to self-explaining roads and driver behaviour in road works. His research has featured in the popular media, from national newspapers, TV and radio through to an appearance on the Discovery Channel. Stanton is both a Charted Psychologist and Chartered Engineer, and holds a Chair in Human Factors Engineering in the Faculty of Engineering and the Environment at the University of Southampton.
He has published over 200 peer-reviewed journal papers and 25 books on human factors and ergonomics. In 1998, he was awarded the Institution of Electrical Engineers Divisional Premium Award for a co-authored paper on engineering psychology and system safety. The Institute for Ergonomics and Human Factors awarded him the Sir Frederic Bartlett medal in 2012, the President’s Medal in 2008 and the Otto Edholm medal in 2001 for his original contribution to basic and applied ergonomics research.