INDICATORS OF EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT WITH FOCUS ON ELEMENTARY EDUCATION: CONCEPT AND DEFINITIONS ARUN C. MEHTA* INTRODUCTION Diagnosis exercise plays an important role in developing educational plans. It is the diagnosis through which the main problems are identified and areas and focus groups that need attention are known. A variety of information is required to undertake rigorous diagnosis exercise.
The data in its original form cannot be used to draw inferences. It needs to be converted in the form of indicators so that meaningful conclusions are drawn. The raw data converted in the indicator form serve as a decision support tool. The National Policy on Education (NPE, 1986) envisaged disaggregated target setting with district as the unit of planning.
The District Primary Education Programme and Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan Programme also envisage developing district plans with a focus on participatory planning and disaggregated target settings. Developing meaningful plans need thorough analysis of a variety of indicators at different levels (state/district/block/village/habitation) of planning covering various aspects of universal elementary education. THE PRESENT MODULE In this module, indicators are grouped into the following three main areas: (a) Coverage of Educational System (b) Internal Efficiency of Education System; and (c) Quality of Services and their Utilisation. Indicators on the above aspects answer a variety of questions.
System's level of development, accessibility and children taking advantage of educational facilities are some of the questions, which relate to the coverage of an education system. For this purpose, indicators such as entry rate (gross and net), enrolment ratio (gross, net and age-specific), admission rate, attendance rate, out-of-school children and additional * Fellow, ORSM Unit, National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration, 17-B, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi – 110016 (INDIA). E-Mail: arunmehta@niepa.org children required to enrol have been demonstrated by using the actual set of data. The next set of questions relates to the internal efficiency of the education system.
Information on the number of children who enter into the system and complete an education cycle, those who drop-out from the system in between and the number of children who reach to the next higher level (transition rate) can be obtained, if indicators of efficiency are computed. For this purpose, methods like Apparent Cohort, Re-constructed Cohort and True Cohort methods have been explained in detail and indicators are computed, analysed and interpreted. The computation procedure of grade-to-grade promotion, drop-out and repetition rates have also been explained by taking the actual set of data. In addition, computation procedure of a variety of other indicators concerning internal efficiency such as cohort survival and drop-out rates, average number of years the system is taking to produce the graduates, wastage ratio, input-output ratio and average stay on account of graduates, repeaters and drop-outs has also been explained.
The last set of questions relates to the resources provided to education and how they contribute to the quality of educational services and whether resources are used in the most effective way possible, all of which can be answered efficiently, if indicators for the disaggregated target groups are computed. In the last section, indicators such as time utilisation rate, space utilisation rate and indicator of average audience in a class are discussed. WHAT IS AN INDICATOR To understand what is indicator? and other questions of similar nature, let us first define an indicator itself. An indicator is that which points out or directs attention to something (Oxford Dictionary).
According to Jonstone (1981), an indicator should be something giving a broad indication of the state of the situation being investigated. Indicator is not an elementary item of information but it is processed information. Indicators are often compared to a ‘norm’ or a ‘standard’ (like pupil-teacher ratio) or to a previous score. Indicators reflect the way in which an objective can be achieved as well as to what degree approximately the objective has been achieved at any stage.
The following are the characteristics of a good indicator: (b) An indicator should provide useful information to the policy makers (c) Its ability to summarize information without distortions (d) Its precision and comparability (e) Its reliability and frequency of updating (f) It allows to relate it with other indicators for global analysis (g) It measures how far or how close one is from the objectives (h) It helps to identify problematic or unacceptable situation (i) It meets policy concerns; and 2 (j) It helps to compare its value to a reference value, to a norm/standard or itself, as computed for different periods By using simple statistical tools such as percentage, rate and ratio and index number, raw data is converted in the indicator form. ‘Rate’ indicates percentage change in the variables over two different periods of time. It shows the growth or decline in a variable. On the other hand, ‘Ratio’ shows the relationship between two variables at any particular period of time.
Rates and ratios are interchangeable and normally expressed as percentages for easy interpretation whereas ‘Percentage’ is the mathematical relationship between two variables multiplied by 100. Index numbers are calculated to review the progress in relation to a particular point of time. Indicators can be developed in a variety of ways. The most common form of indicators is the representative indicator.
It involves selection of a single variable to reflect some aspect of an educational system. However, it does not provide any justification for selecting one variable rather than other. Therefore, choosing one variable to act as an indicator for an education system is an impossible task and the most unsatisfactory one also. That is why some indicators are disaggregated in nature.
Instead of only one variable to represent a concept, this type of indicator requires definitions of variables for every element or component of the education system which is confusing and difficult to manage. The other variety of indicators is composite indicator that combines a number of variables. The final composite indicator is interpreted as average of all variables. In our day-to-day life, we come across various indicators which can be classified into three broad categories, namely input, process and output indicators.
Various process control machines such as videocassette recorder, automatic milk booths and automatic weighing machines are some of the examples of these indicators. However, in the field of education, the classification of indicators under different categories is not an easy task. Generally, we view education as a system, which receives inputs in the form of new entrants, transforms these inputs through certain internal processes, and finally yields certain outputs in the form of graduates. The output from a given cycle of education is defined as those students who complete the cycle successfully and the input used up in the processes of education are measured in terms of student years.
Educational indicators can be classified into indicators of size or quantity, equity, efficiency and quality. 3 MEASURING THE EDUCATIONAL ACCESS AND COVERAGE — INDICATORS OF ACCESS Universal access to schooling facilities is one of the important components of UEE. To know whether the facilities are equally distributed or not, indicators of access are used. Access indicators are also used to know whether schooling facilities are adequately utilised.
A number of factors such as population of habitation, distance from the house, mode of travel and time needed to reach schools are considered while analysing accessibility. The current norm is to provide a primary and upper primary school within a distance of one and three kilometres from the habitation respectively. Habitation is treated as the lowest unit of planning where schooling facilities are supposed to be available. So far as the population norm is concerned, habitations having population of 300 and more and 500 and more are entitled to have a primary and upper primary school within a distance of one and three kilometres.
The distance and population norms vary from state to state, therefore, state-specific norms should be considered while developing access indicators. Some of the commonly used indicators of access are: (b) Percentage of habitations according to population and distance norms accessed to primary schooling facilities; (c) Percentage of habitations according to population and distance norms accessed to upper primary schooling facilities; and (d) Percentage of habitations served by primary and upper primary schools within habitation, and walking distance. For example, 84 and 73 per cent of the total habitations (according to population and distance norms) in the country were respectively accessed to primary and upper primary schooling facilities. This otherwise means that only 16 and 27 per cent habitations were not accessed to the schooling facilities at these stages respectively.
The indicator in an aggregate form serves only the limited purpose unless the same is made available at the disaggregated levels, such as state, district, block and habitation. A more meaningful indicator of access can be generated, if the same is linked to the rural population. Thus for the other indicator of access one should consider: (e) Percentage of rural population having access to primary schooling facilities as per the distance norm; and (f) Percentage of rural population having access to upper primary schooling facilities as per the distance norm. 4 5 For example, about 95 per cent of the total population is served by the schooling facilities, which means that only 5 per cent population is yet to be provided schooling facilities.
Alongwith the availability of schools, indicators on facilities in schools are also used as the indicators of access. Such indicators relate to the physical, teaching and ancillary facilities in schools, some of which are listed below: 1. Percentage of schools having school buildings to total number to schools 2. Percentage of schools according to ownership of school building: no building, rented building, own building 3.
Percentage of schools functioning in tents, open space, religious place etc. Percentage of schools according to type of school building: thatched, semi- permanent (kuchha), and pucca 5. Percentage of schools needing new building, major and minor repairs 6. Percentage of schools having boundary walls 7.
Percentage of schooling having playgrounds 8. Percentage of schools distributed according to total number of classrooms 9. Percentage of schools distributed according to number of instructional rooms 10. Percentage of schools distributed according to availability of separate room for head master and staff room 11.
Percentage of schools having drinking water facilities 12. Percentage of schools having electricity connection 13. Percentage of schools having toilet facility 14. Percentage of schools having separate toilet for girls 15.
Percentage of schools having tat-pattis, benches/chairs for students, desks, chairs and table for teachers 16. Percentage of schools having boxes, almirahs, dustbins etc. Percentage of schools covered under the Operation Blackboard scheme 18. Percentage of schools having OB kit and other teaching–learning material such as black board, globe, map, charts, dictionary etc.
The above set of indicators needs to be developed separately for the primary and upper primary level of education and should also be computed at the district and all of its sub-units. 6 — INDICATORS OF COVERAGE By measuring the educational coverage, we mean interaction between demand and supply. Demand and supply in education means children of a specific age-group utilising the educational facilities, which is termed as supply. The following indicators of coverage are discussed in this module: (b) Admission Rate; (c) Enrolment Ratio; and (d) Transition Rate.
(i) Admission Rate The first indicator of coverage, that is, ‘admission rate’ is also known as the ‘entry’ or ‘intake rate’. Admission rate plays an important role in knowing the coverage of the entry age of the child population (generally age-6) in the system. The rate is calculated in terms of Grade I enrolment and population of age-6 years. When enrolment is analysed, we notice two types of children in Grade I, that is, new entrants and repeaters.
But while computing the admission rate, only the present members of the cohort (new entrants in Grade I) are considered. Repeaters are ignored, as they are the members of some previous cohorts.
