PLEDGE I assure that this thesis is my research work and has not been published. The results of this thesis are honest, not copied from any source and in any form. The references to the source materials used in this thesis have been cited following the regulations. AUTHOR OF THE THESIS NGUYEN THI THUY DUNG ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Foremost, I would like to express my deep gratitude to Professor Yasuhara Kazuya and Associate Professor Do Minh Duc for wholeheartedly guiding and supporting me conducted this research.
I would also like to thank Mr Nguyen Huu Hoa, deputy director of Binh Dinh Department of Science and Technology, for helping me collect the data for the thesis. May warm thanks also go to Ms Dinh Thi Quynh for her kind help, academic advice, and support during the study. I also want to express my thanks to the MCCD program for all support and sharing. Last but not least, I would like to thank my family for always being my spiritual support and encouragement me to overcome all difficulties to complete this thesis.
CONTENT LIST OF TABLES. i LIST OF FIGURES .ii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. Rationale of the study. Objectives of the research.
Objects and Scope of the research. Research questions and hypotheses. Significance of the research. The novelty of the research.
The structure of the thesis. Review related literature and studies. Overview of studies on coastal erosion. Overview of adaptation measures.
Location and natural conditions. Socio-economic condition. Climate change in Binh Dinh. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.
UAVs photo processing. Shoreline change analysis. Preliminary assessment of the causes of coastal erosion. Shoreline change prediction.
Recommendation for using research results. Further research orientations. 98 LIST OF TABLES Table 1. 1: Research objectives, questions and hypotheses.
2: Structural solutions to prevent coastal erosion. 3: Anti-erosion solutions of Cua Dai beach. 4: Average rainfall in years at Phu Cat station. 5: Wave and current characteristics at the De Gi estuary.
6: Population of 5 coastal communes of Phu Cat district. 7: Land use status of 5 coastal communes of Phu Cat district in 2013. 8: List of storms that landed or affected Binh Dinh province (1988-2017). 1: Landsat 8-9 OLI/TIRS (L2SP) Band Specifications.
2: Landsat 4-5 TM (L2SP) Band Specifications. 3: List of satellite images used in the study. 4: Summary of data used in the research. 5: List of research methods.
1: Shoreline change rate in NE monsoon season (1989-2016). 2: Shoreline change rate in NE monsoon season (1989-1999). 3: Shoreline change rate in NE monsoon season (1999-2008). 4: Shoreline change rate in NE monsoon season (2008-2016).
5: Shoreline change rate in SW monsoon season (1989-2014). 6: Shoreline change rate in SW monsoon season (1989-2000). 7: Shoreline change rate in SW monsoon season (2000-2008). 8: Shoreline change rate in SW monsoon season (2008-2014).
9: Shoreline change in 1989. 10: Shoreline change in 1993. 11: Shoreline change in 2008. 12: Shoreline change rate in 2014.
13: Estimation of shoreline retreat due to SLR in Cat Khanh beach. 14: Estimation of shoreline retreat due to SLR in Cat Hai beach. 15: Estimation of shoreline retreat due to SLR in Vinh Hoi beach. 16: Estimation of shoreline retreat due to SLR in Trung Luong beach.
17: The group of non-structural solutions. 18: Features of Phu Cat coastal dunes. 19: Activities of exploiting dunes along Phu Cat coastline. 20: List of policies related to coastal erosion issue in Binh Dinh province.
21: Preliminary assessment of adaptive capacity for Phu Cat district. 22: Compare the results of the study with related studies. 87 i LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. 1: Phu Cat coast was eroded in 2017.
2: The coastal zone. 3: Headland type concrete structures to protect the coastal area from erosion in Ibaraki, Japan. 4: Embankment in Phan Thiet beach. 5: T-groynes and break water in Ro hamlet, Phu Yen province.
6: Tam Quan embankment was broken in 2019. 7: Casuarina trees along the coast in An Quang Dong village, Cat Khanh commune, was uprooted in 2017. 8: Location map of the study area. 9: Topography map of the study area.
10: Wave rose at the De Gi estuary a) September 2012 and b) June 2013. 11: Economic structure of Phu Cat district. 12: Some beautiful beaches in the Phu Cat district. 13: Temperature trend in Binh Dinh province from 2006 to 2019.
14: Change of annual rainfall (%) ( 1958-2014). 15: The influence of storm Linfa along with heavy rain caused flooding in many areas in Binh Dinh province. 16: Path of storms that hit the East Sea and Vietnam in the past 70 years. 17: Average Sea level at Quy Nhon station.
1: The research framework. 2: DJI Phantom 4 Advanced. 3: UAV photos of Phu Cat coastal area, captured by the DJI Phantom 4 Advance+. 4: Topographic maps of study area published by U.
Army Topographic Command. 5: UAV photos processing flowchart. 6: Sand samples after drying (Left) and sampling location (Right) of coastal sand in Phu Cat district. 7: Particle size classification by manual sieving method.
8: Illustration of the Bruun Rule, by the Scientific Committee on Ocean Research (1991). 9: Parabolic bay-shape model (after Hsu and Evans, 1989). 10: The logical framework. 1: Particle size distribution along Phu Cat coastline.
2: UAV images interpretation results (overlap on Google Earth background)44 Figure 3. 3: Four research segments. 4: Result of the shoreline extraction. 5: Erosion - Accretion classification (EPR).
6: Shoreline change map (EPR) in NE monsoon season (1989-2016). 7: Shoreline change map (EPR) in NE monsoon season (1989-1999). 8: Shoreline change map (EPR) in NE monsoon season (1999-2008). 9: Shoreline change map (EPR) in NE monsoon season (2008-2016).
10: Shoreline change map (EPR) in SW monsoon season (1989-2014). 11: Shoreline change map (EPR) in SW monsoon season (1989-2000). 12: Shoreline change map (EPR) in SW monsoon season (2000-2008). 13: Shoreline change map (EPR) in SW monsoon season (2008-2014).
14: Map of shoreline change (NSM) in 1989. 15: Map of shoreline change (NSM) in 1993. 16: Map of shoreline change (NSM) in 2008. 17: Map of shoreline change (NSM) in 2014.
18: Aquaculture area along De Gi beach. 19: Shoreline prediction for the next10 years and 20 years. 20: Predicted SEP of De Gi beach (1965). 21:Predicted SEP of De Gi beach (2019).
22: Predicted SEP of the beach near Ong Lop headland (2019). 23: Predicted SEP of Cat Hai beach (2019). 24: Predicted SEP of Vinh Hoi beach (2019). 25: Predicted SEP of Trung Luong beach (2019).
26: Four representative cross-sections of Phu Cat shoreline. 27: Representative cross-section of Cat Khanh beach. 28: Representative cross-section of Cat Hai beach. 29: Representative cross-section of Vinh Hoi beach.
30: Representative cross-section of Trung Luong beach. 31: De Gi jetty with tetrapod structure. 32: Dania beach with jetty and groynes. 33: Dania Beach, Florida, USA (viewed from the North).
34: Conservation of natural vegetation combined coastal setbacks in Dania Beach, Florida, USA. 35: An example of native vegetation conservation on the coastal sand dunes in India. 36: Proposal on the process of integrating coastal erosion into construction planning. 37: Orientation for construction planning in Phu Cat district (browsed).
38: Mainstreaming anti-erosion measures into planning. 39: Parabolic model for T-groins (tentative) at the beach of An Quang village (Cat Khanh commune). 40: Comparison of erosion rate (EPR index) in NEMS and SWMS. 86 iii iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS MONRE Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment GSO General Statistics Office CC Climate change GIS Geographic information system DSAS Digital Shoreline Analysis System EPR End Point Rate NSM Net Shore Movement LR Linear Regression IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change USGS United States Geological Survey UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management CZM Coastal Zone Management FAO Food and Agriculture Organization EC The European Commission ICAM Integrated Coastal Area Management ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management PBSE Parabolic Bay Shape Equation HBB Headland-bay beaches NEMS North-east monsoon season SWMS South-west monsoon season v CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.
Rationale of the study Climate change is becoming the biggest challenge facing humanity on a global scale. According to the Global Climate Risk Index 2021 (CRI) report, Vietnam ranked 13 out of 180 countries [1]. Recognizing the dangers of climate change, on April 22 at the United Nations headquarters in New York (USA), Vietnam and about 180 countries signed the Paris Agreement, officially step into the fight against global climate change [2]. In Vietnam, in the past 50 years, the average temperature has increased by 0.7oC, the sea level has risen about 20cm.
Extreme weather events, especially storms, floods, and droughts, are becoming increasingly severe. According to the climate change and sea-level rise scenarios released in 2016 by MONRE, the average temperature in Vietnam could rise to 4oC, and sea level could rise 1 m by 2100 [3]. Vulnerable areas include coastal areas (especially areas often affected by storms, storm surges, floods); mountainous areas, especially places where flash floods and landslides often occur. With a coastline of 3,260 km, Vietnam's marine economy is developing strongly.
However, climate change and sea-level rise would increase the risk of inundation, erosion, and salinity, affect the economy, people's livelihoods, threaten or destroy the coastal technical infrastructure system. At present, coastal erosion has become common all over the coast of Vietnam, from the North to the South. According to research by Pham Huy Tien et al. (2002), the total number of eroded banks is 397, with a total length of 920.
The average erosion rate is about 5-10m/year, but could reach 50-100m/year, even 200-250m/year in short intervals [3]. Binh Dinh is a coastal province located in Central Vietnam, borders the East Sea with a coastline of 134 km. Binh Dinh has significant advantages by nature and great potential for the development of the marine economy. 1 According to the Chairman of Binh Dinh Provincial People's Committee, the most erosion hot spot is Phu My district with four communes My Duc, My Thang, My An and My Thanh; including the total length of the landslide is 3,900m; affecting the life and production of 2,520 households.
In Phu Cat district, coastal erosion occurred in An Quang village, Cat Khanh commune, with over 520m, affecting 550 families. In 2015 and 2017, coastal erosion uprooted many casuarina trees, and waves intruded inland in some places over 70m. In Cat Tien commune, the sea firmly invaded Trung Luong village over 500m, affecting 495 households [4] (Please see Figure 1. 1: Phu Cat coast was eroded in 2017.
Realizing the potential risk caused by the impacts of climate change, in June 2020, Department of Science and Technology of Binh Dinh province proposed to order an independent national science and technology mission: "Research on integrated technology solutions to strengthen resilience and ability to proactively respond to erosion and accretion disaster of coastal villages and communes of Binh Dinh province in the context of urbanization and climate change". From the above practice, the topic "Coastal erosion in Phu Cat district, Binh Dinh province in the context of climate change and adaptation measures" was selected for research to analyze coastal erosion under the impacts of climate change; and propose adaptation solutions in accordance with the local adaptive capacity. Objectives of the research This study has three main objectives: to analyze shoreline changes, to forecast shoreline changes in the context of climate change, and to propose adaptation measures.