Mir Publishers Moscow www.com ELEMENTARY TEXTBOOK ON PHYSICS Edited by G. Landsberg These three volumes form a course on elementary physics that has become very popular in the Soviet Union. Each sectioh was written by an authority in the appropriate field, while the overall unity and editing was supervised by Academician G. This textbook has gone through ten Russian editions and a great deal of effort went into the last edition to introduce SI units and change the terminology and notation for the physical units.
A feature of this course is the relatively small number of formulas and mathematical manipulations. Instead, attention was focussed on explaining physical phenomena in such a way as to combine scientific rigour and a form understandable to school children. Another aspect of the text is the technological application of the physical laws. These features make the text a world-class textbook.
For students preparing to enter universities and colleges to study physics, and for those it high schools specialising in physics.com ELEMENTARY TEXTBOOK ON PHYSICS Volume 2 www.com S J l EMEHT APHb l M YMEBHMK 0M3MKM riofl pe^aKL^Meii aKafleMMKa T. /lA H flC B E P rA B 3-x TOMax TOM 2 3J1EKTPMHECTBO M MArHETM3M M3flaTenbCTBo «HayKa» Mockbs www.com ELEMENTARY TEXTBOOK ON PHYSICS Edited by G. Landsberg In three volumes Volume 2 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM Mir Publishers Moscow www.com Translated from Russian by Natalia Wadhwa First published 1988 Revised from the 1985 Russian edition Ha ane/iuucKOM * 3 biKe Printed in the Union o f Soviet Socialist Republics © H 3 ,aaTejibCTBO «Hayica». TjiaBHaa peflaKima ISBN 5-03-000225-1 (J)H3HKo-MaTeMaTHHecKofl JiHTepaTypbi, 1985 ISBN 5-03-000223-5 © English translation, Mir Publishers, 1988 www.com Contents From the Preface to the First Russian Edition 10 Chapter i.
Conductors and Insulators (13). Division of Bodies into Conductors and Insulators (15). Positive and Negative Charges (17). What Happens During Electrostatic Charging (19)? 1.
Electrostatic Charging by Friction (22). Charging by Induction (25). Charging by Light. Unit of Charge (31).
Effect of Electric Charge on Surrounding Bodies (34). The Idea of Electric Field (35). Electric Field Strength (37). Composition of Fields (39).
Electric Field in In sulators and Conductors (40). Graphic Representation of Fields (41). Main Features of Electric Field-Strength Patterns (45). Application of the Method of Field Lines to Problems in Electrostatics (45).
Work Done in Displacing an Electric Charge in an Elec tric Field (48). Why Was the Potential Difference Introduced (55)? 2. Conditions for Charge Equilibrium in Conductors (57). What Is the Difference Be tween an Electrometer and an Electroscope (61)? 2.
Measurement of the Potential Difference in Air. Electric Field of the Earth (65). Simple Electric Field Configurations (66). Charge Distribution in a Conductor.
Surface Charge Density (72). Types of Capacitors (77). Parallel and Series Connection of Capacitors (80). Dielectric Per mittivity (81).
Why Is Electric Field Weakened in a Dielectric? Polarization of Dielec trics (85). Energy of Charged Bodies. Energy of Electric Field (87). Electric Current and Electromotive Force (90).
Manifestations of Electric Cur rent (95). Direction of Current (98). Strength of Current (99). “Velocity of Elec tric Current” and Velocity of Charge Carriers (100).
Voltage Distribution in a Current-Carrying Conductor (102). Resistance of www.com 6 Contents Wires (106). Temperature Dependence of Resistance (109). Series and Parallel Connection of Wires (113).
Voltage Distribution in a Circuit. “Losses” in Wires (117). What Must be the Resistances of a Voltmeter and an Ammeter (120)? 3. Shunting of Measuring Instruments (121).
Thermal Effect of Current 123 4. Heating by Current. Work Done by Electric Current (124). Power of a Current (125).
Electric Heating Appliances. Design of Heating Appliances (129). Electric Current in Electrolytes 136 5. Faraday’s First Law of Electrolysis (136).
Faraday’s Second Law of Electrolysis (138). Ionic Conduction in Electrolytes (140). Motion of Ions in Electrolytes (142). Elementary Electric Charge (143).
Primary and Secondary Processes in Electrolysis (144). Graduating Ammeters with the Help of Elec trolysis (147). Technical Applications of Electrolysis (148). Chemical and Thermal Generators 152 6.
Emergence of EMF and Current in a Galvanic Cell (156). Polarization of Electrodes (161). Depolarization of Galvanic Cells (163). Ohm’s Law for Closed Circuits (167).
Voltage Across the Terminals of a Current Source and EMF (169). Connection of Current Sources (172). Ther mocouples as Generators (178). Measurement of Temperature with the Help of Ther mocouples (179).
Electric Current in Metals 183 7. Electron Conduction in Metals (184). Structure of Metals (186). Reasons Behind Electric Resistance (187).
Emission of Electrons by Incandes cent Bodies (189). Electric Current in Gases 192 8. Intrinsic and Induced Conduction in Gases (192). Induced Conduction in a Gas (192).
Ap plications of Corona Discharge (201). Applications of Arc Discharge (207). What Occurs www.com Contents 7 During a Glow Discharge (209)? 8. Nature of Cathode Rays (212).
Electron Conduction in a High Vacuum (218). Cathode-Ray Tube (223). Electric Current in Semiconductors 226 9. Nature of Electric Current in Semiconductors (226).
Motion of Electrons in Semicon ductors. p- and n-Type Semiconductors (229). Basic Magnetic Phenomena 239 10. Natural and Artificial Magnets (239).
Poles of a Magnet and Its Neutral Zone (241). Magnetic Effect of Electric Current (244). Magnetic Effects of Currents and Permanent Magnets (246). Origin of the Magnetic Field of Permanent Magnets.
Ampere’s Hypothesis on Elementary Currents (255). Magnetic Field and Its Manifestations. Magnetic Mo ment. Unit of Magnetic Induction (259).
Measurement of Magnetic Induction with the Help of Magnetic Needle (260). Composition of Magnetic Fields (261). Magnetic Field Lines (262). Instruments for Measuring Magnetic Induction (264).
Magnetic Field of Current 266 12. Magnetic Field of a Straight Conductor and of a Circular Current Loop. Right-Hand Screw Rule (266). Magnetic Field of a Solenoid.
Equivalence of a Solenoid and a Bar Magnet (269). Magnetic Field in a Solenoid. Magnetic Field Strength (272). Magnetic Field of Moving Charges (274).
Magnetic Field of the Earth 276 13. Magnetic Field of the Earth (276). Elements of the Earth’s Magnetism (278). Magnetic Anomalies and Magnetometric Prospecting of Mineral Resources (281).
Time Variation of Elements of the Earth’s Magnetic Field. Forces Acting on Current-Carrying Conduc tors in a Magnetic Field 283 14. Effect of a Magnetic Field on a Straight Current-Carrying Conductor. Left-Hand Rule (283).
Effect of a Magnetic Field on a Current Loop or on a www.com 8 Contents Solenoid (288). Galvanometer Based on Interaction of Magnetic Field and Current (293). Lorentz Force and Aurora Borealis (299). Conditions for Emergence of Induced Current (302).
Direction of Induced Cur rent. Basic Law of Electromagnetic Induction (312). Electromagnetic Induction and Lorentz Force (317). Induced Currents in Bulky Conductors.
Magnetic Properties of Bodies 322 16. Magnetic Permeability of Iron (322). Permeability of Different Materials. Paramagnetics and Diamagnetics (326).
Motion of Paramagnetics and Diamagnetics in a Magnetic Field. Molecular Theory of Magnetism (330). Properties of Ferromagnetics (333). Fundamen tals of the Theory of Ferromagnetism (338).
Constant and Alternating Electromotive Force (341). Experimental Investigation of the Form of an Alternating Current. Amplitude, Frequency and Phase of Sinusoidal Alternating Current and Voltage (347). Strength of Alternating Current (351).
Ammeters and Voltmeters (352). Inductance of a Coil (356). Alternating Current Through a Capacitor and a Large- Inductance Coil (357). Ohm’s Law for Alternating Current.
Capacitive and Inductive Reactances (360). Summation of Currents for Parallel Connection of Elements in an A. Summation of Voltages in Series Connection of Elements of an A. Phase Shift Between Current and Voltage (367).
Power of Alternating Current (372). Centralized Production and Distribution of Electric Power (379). Rectification of Alternating Current (381). Electric Machines: Generators, Motors and Electromagnets 386 18.
Separately Excited and Self- Excited Generators (398). Three-Phase Current (402). Three-Phase Electric Motor (407). Basic Operating Characteristics and Features of D.
Motors with Shunt and Series Excitation (418). Efficiency of Generators and Motors (424). Ap plication of Electromagnets (428). Relays and Their Application in Engineering and www.com Contents 9 Automatic Control (430) Answers and Solutions (432) Appendices (442) 1.
Fundamental Physical Constants (442). Factors and Prefixes Used with the SI Units (442). Subject Index (443) www.com From the Preface to the First Russian Edition The second volume of Elementary Textbook on Physics contains the theory of electric and magnetic phenomena. It does not include problems concerning electromagnetic oscillations and waves since, in accordance with the general outline of this course, these questions are associated with the basic theory of oscillations and waves and make up, together with acoustics and optics, the third volume of the course.
The general concepts which served as the guidelines during the compila tion of this volume have been mentioned in the preface to the first volume. Since the material contained in this book is intended for the high-school students, a higher level of knowledge is expected from the reader. The mathematical formulas occupy little space in this book and like in the previous volume are mainly encountered in brevier. This book was prepared with the active cooperation of S.com Chapter 1 Electric Charges 1.
Electric Interaction Let us suspend a light body, say, a paper core, on a silk thread. Then we rub a glass rod against a silk cloth and bring it close to the body. The core will first be attracted to the rod but then, having touched it, will be repelled (Fig. Now we touch a similar paper core with the same glass rod rubbed against silk, remove the rod and place the cores at a small distance from each other.
They will repel each other (Fig. A paper core is repelled from the glass rod by which it has been charged. Before we touched the cores with the glass rod rubbed against silk, they had been in equilibrium in the vertical position under the action of the force of gravity and tension of the thread. Now their equilibrium position has changed.
This means that in addition to the forces mention ed above, some other forces are acting on the cores. These forces differ from the forces of gravity, the forces emerging as a result of deforma tions of bodies, friction and other forces which we have studied in the course on mechanics. In the simple experiments described above, we en counter the manifestations of forces known as electric forces. The bodies that exert electric forces on surrounding objects are referred to as electrically charged bodies, and electric charges are said to be located on such bodies.com 12 Chapter 1 Two paper cores suspended on silk threads and charged by a glass rod repel each other: mg is the force of gravity acting on a paper core, F is the electric force and N is the force balancing the tension of the thread.
In the above experiments, glass was charged by rubbing against silk. We could take, however, sealing wax, ebonite, plexiglass, or amber instead of glass and replace the silk cloth by leather, rubber or some other material. Experiments show that any object can be electrically charged by friction. Electric repulsion of charged bodies is used in the construction of the electroscope, an instrument for detecting electric charges.
It consists of a metal rod with a very thin aluminium or paper leaf (or two leaves) attached to its end (Fig. The rod is fixed in a glass jar with the help of an ebonite or amber stopper to protect the leaves from air currents. Figure 3b shows a schematic diagram of an electroscope which we shall use henceforth. Let us touch the rod of an electroscope with an electrically charged body, say, by a glass rod rubbed against silk.
The leaves will be repelled by Fig. A simple electroscope: (a) general and (b) schematic diagram. (a) the rod and will diverge through a certain angle. If we now remove the rod, the leaves will remain deflected, which indicates that a certain charge has been transferred to the electroscope during its contact with the charged body.com Electric Charges 13 Let us charge the electroscope with the help of the glass rod, mark the deflection of the leaves, touch the rod again with the charged glass and then remove the glass rod.