ELECTRIC AND Technologies, Modeling and Control: A Mechatronic Approach Amir Khajepour I Saber Fallah I Avesta Goodarzi Wiley ELECTRIC AND HYBRID VEHICLES ELECTRIC AND HYBRID VEHICLES TECHNOLOGIES, MODELING AND CONTROL: A MECHATRONIC APPROACH Amir Khajepour University of Waterloo, Canada Saber Fallah University of Surrey, UK Avesta Goodarzi University of Waterloo, Canada Iran University of Science and Technology, Iran This edition first published 2014 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Registered office John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO198SQ, United Kingdom For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www. The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for. ISBN 9781118341513 Set in 10/12pt TimesLTStd-Roman by Thomson Digital, Noida, India. 1 2014 To our students, whose enthusiasm and hard work are a constant source of inspiration, and to our families, without whose endless patience and support, this book might never have been written. Contents Preface xiii Acknowledgments xv 1 Introduction to Vehicle Propulsion and Powertrain Technologies 1 1.1 History of Vehicle Development 1 1.2 Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles (ICEVs) 3 1.1 The Four-Stroke Gasoline Engine 5 1.2 The Four-Stroke Diesel Engine 6 1.3 ICE Performance Characteristics 8 1.4 ICE Vehicle Emissions 11 1.3 Vehicle Emission Control Technologies 16 1.1 Advanced Engine Design 16 1.3 The Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) 21 1.4 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) 22 1.5 Crankcase Emission Control System 24 1.4 Vehicles with Alternative Fuels 25 1.1 Natural Gas Vehicles (NGVs) 25 1.2 Liquefied Petroleum Gas Vehicles (LPGVs) 26 1.1 Rear-Wheel Drive Powertrains 29 1.2 Front-Wheel Drive (FWD) Powertrains 30 1.3 Multi-Wheel Drive Powertrains 31 1.1 Manual Transmission/Transaxle Systems 32 1.2 Automatic Transmission/Transaxle Systems 34 1.3 Automated Manual Transmissions (AMTs) 38 1.4 Continuous Variable Transmissions (CVTs) 38 1.7 Drivetrain and Differentials 41 1.2 Limited Slip Differentials 42 viii Contents 1.4 Transfer Case Differentials 43 Problems 43 References 44 2 Electric and Hybrid Powertrain Technologies 47 2.2 Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) 48 2.1 The BEV Powertrain Configuration 49 2.2 Electric Traction Motors 53 2.3 Energy Sources and Storages 56 2.4 Power Electronic Converters 62 2.6 Regenerative Braking System 64 2.3 Fuel-Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) 65 2.1 Fuel-Cell Technologies 67 2.4 Hybrid Electric Vehicles 71 2.1 Degree of Hybridization 72 2.2 Parallel Hybrid Configuration 75 2.3 Series Hybrid Configuration 80 2.4 Power-Split Configuration 81 2.5 Compound Hybrid Configuration 84 2.5 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) 85 2.6 Hybrid Hydraulic Vehicles (HHVs) 87 2.7 Pneumatic Hybrid Vehicles (PHVs) 89 2.8 Power/Energy Management Systems 91 2.9 Summary 92 Problems 93 References 94 3 Body and Chassis Technologies and Design 95 3.2 General Configuration of Automobiles 95 3.3 Body and Chassis Fundamentals 97 3.4 Different Types of Structural Systems 101 3.1 Body-on-Frame Construction 101 3.3 Space Frame Construction 103 3.5 Body and Chassis Materials 108 3.1 Low Carbon Steel 108 3.2 Advanced High Strength Steels 108 3.3 Nonferrous Metals 109 Contents ix 3.5 Multi-Material Approach in Car Body Design 109 3.6 Specific Considerations in Body and Chassis Design of Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles 110 3.7 The Chassis Systems of Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles 126 3.1 The Suspension System 126 3.2 The Steering System 134 3.3 The Braking System 140 Problems 146 References 148 4 Vehicle Dynamics Fundamentals 149 4.2 Concepts and Terminology 149 4.1 Evaluation Criteria for Vehicle Dynamics 149 4.2 Weights and Dimensions 150 4.1 Vehicle Coordinate Systems 152 4.3 Longitudinal and Lateral Slips 155 4.4 Planar Vehicle Kinematics 158 4.5 Three-Dimensional Vehicle Kinematics 160 4.6 Vehicle Forces and Moments 167 4.4 Tire Mechanics and Modeling 170 4.1 Tire Characteristic Curves 171 4.3 The Magic Formula (FM) Tire Model 178 Problems 178 References 179 5 Modelling and Characteristics of EV/HEV Powertrains Components 181 5.2 ICE Performance Characteristics 182 5.1 Power and Torque Generation 182 5.2 Mean Effective Pressure 184 5.3 Specific Fuel Consumption 186 5.4 Fuel Conversion Efficiency 189 5.6 Air–Fuel Ratio 191 5.10 Relationships between ICE Performance Characteristics 193 x Contents 5.3 Electric Motor Performance Characteristics 195 5.1 Power and Torque Generation 195 5.4 Induction AC Motors 203 5.5 Steady-State Performance Analysis 204 5.6 Permanent-Magnet AC Motors 210 5.4 Battery Performance Characteristics 214 5.2 Open Circuit and Terminal Voltages 215 5.3 Charge/Discharge Rate 216 5.4 State of Charge/Discharge 217 5.5 Depth of Discharge 218 5.6 Battery Energy Density and Specific Energy 220 5.7 Battery Power Density and Specific Power 221 5.5 Transmission and Drivetrain Characteristics 223 5.2 Planetary Gear Set 225 5.6 Regenerative Braking Characteristics 233 5.1 EPA Driving Cycles 236 5.2 The European NEDC 238 5.3 The Japan 10–15 Mode 240 Problems 241 References 243 6 Modeling and Analysis of Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles’ Propulsion and Braking 245 6.2 The Longitudinal Dynamics Equation of Motion 246 6.3 Vehicle Propulsion Modeling and Analysis 247 6.1 Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles 247 6.3 Hybrid Electric Vehicles 263 6.4 Vehicle Braking Modeling and Analysis 268 Problems 274 7 Handling Analysis of Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles 277 7.2 Simplified Handling Models 277 7.1 Single Track Linear Handling Model 278 7.2 Analytical Handling Analysis 282 7.3 Roll and Pitch Dynamics Models 293 Contents xi 7.3 Comprehensive Handling Model of EVs and HEVs 298 7.1 Vehicle Kinetics Model 299 7.2 The Tire Model 302 7.3 Powertrain and Wheel Dynamics Model 303 7.4 Simulation Study 306 Problems 310 References 311 8 Energy/Power Allocation and Management 313 8.2 Power/Energy Management Controllers 314 8.3 Rule-Based Control Strategies 315 8.1 Deterministic Rule-Based Control Strategies 315 8.2 Fuzzy-Rule-Based Control Strategies 336 8.3 Rule-Based Control Strategies for PHEVs 336 8.4 Optimization-Based Control Strategies 337 8.1 Optimization Problem Formulation 339 8.2 Global Energy/Power Management Optimization 343 8.3 Real-Time Energy/Power Management Optimization 344 8.4 Optimization Techniques 345 References 365 9 Control of Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicle Dynamics 367 9.2 Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamic Control (VDC) Systems 368 9.1 Driver, Vehicle, and Environment 368 9.2 Working Principle of VDC systems 373 9.3 VDC Systems Classification 374 9.3 VDC Implementation on Electric and Hybrid Vehicles 390 9.1 Structure of the Control System 390 9.2 Control System Design 392 9.3 Simulation Study 401 Problems 409 References 409 Index 411 Preface Concerns over the environment, public health and the availability of fossil fuels have forced the establishment of aggressive emissions regulations, such as the U.
2020 CAFE Standards, and have triggered momentous changes in global automotive strategies. New technologies and products are now required to enhance fuel efficiency and reduce harmful emissions, without sacrificing performance, cost-efficiency and safety. Vehicle electrification and hybridization have been increasingly recognized as the most promising road transportation solutions to both the global energy crisis and the increasingly stringent requirements related to environmental protection and vehicle safety. However, the electrification of automotive systems presents significant design challenges, specifically related to drivetrain systems, chassis design and layout, multidisciplinary power management and optimization, system integration, and vehicle dynamics and control.
Electric and hybrid electric vehicles (EVs and HEVs) are complex mechatronic systems; their design requires holistic consideration of vehicle and tire dynamics, powertrain, electric motors and batteries, and control and estimation modules that are integrated through millions of lines of computer code. Several books have already been published that outline very well the electrical aspects of EV and HEV platforms. In this book, we have expanded upon these early works to present a more comprehensive perspective that combines electrical, control, and dynamics in systems-level design. It places new emphasis on how dramatically vehicle dynamics and, subsequently, our understanding of conventional vehicle design is changed by electrification.
This book is structured to address both senior undergraduate and graduate level courses, and can serve as an excellent reference for anyone with a background in dynamics, electrical, and control engineering. The content is sufficiently broad to allow course instructors the opportunity to tailor the material according to students’ backgrounds. Several introductory chapters provide important background information on vehicle technologies in propulsion, powertrain, body and chassis, and the evolution of automotive technology design from conventional vehicles to the HEV and EV models we see on the road today. Students with electrical and control engineering backgrounds, but limited experience with automotive and mechanical engineering applications will benefit from these initial chapters, while students with stronger automotive backgrounds will benefit from later chapters that focus on HEV and EV power management optimization and vehicle control.
xiv Preface In this book we have tried our best to ensure students are presented with a balance between building a solid conceptual understanding and developing procedural skills related to automotive design. Examples are presented throughout that encourage students to apply their theoretical knowledge to real EV and HEV design challenges and considerations specific to these vehicles. End-of-chapter problems are provided for further practice and to facilitate a better understanding of the materials. Acknowledgments This book would not have been possible without the help of many people.
We are particularly grateful to Joan Ang, Gaurav Pokharel, Amir Ostadi, and Ivanna Ramnath for their careful review and meticulous editing of each book chapter; John Chen, Kenan Habib, and Azadeh Zandieh, who drew most of the figures; and Soheil Fard, Reza Zarringhalam, and Ayyoub Rezaeian, who prepared the examples and problems. We also thank John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. for providing the opportunity, encouragement, and support throughout this book project. 1 Introduction to Vehicle Propulsion and Powertrain Technologies The advent of the internal combustion engine has significantly influenced human life.
As the main propulsion technology used in vehicles, the internal combustion engine has become an integral part of modern life. However, as internal combustion engine vehicles increase in number, they constitute one of the largest sources of air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. This chapter introduces currently available propulsion technologies, as well as their advantages and disadvantages. The chapter begins by providing a brief history of internal combustion engine vehicles, then reviews the environmental challenges associated with combustion engine emissions.
The rest of the chapter discusses the benefits of emission control technology, alternatively-fueled propulsion, and advanced powertrain technologies.1 History of Vehicle Development Vehicles have a long and varied history. In this section, we highlight few key events [1–5]. In 1769, Nicolas-Josef Cugnot and M. Brezin designed and built the first self-propelled vehicle, a steam-powered motor carriage capable of a maximum speed of 6 km/hr.
However, even when modified for faster speeds, its heavy mass hindered the vehicle’s performance. In 1807, the invention of the internal combustion engine (ICE) by François Isaac de Rivaz created new possibilities.