The Project Gutenberg EBook of The First Steps in Algebra, by G. (George Albert) Wentworth This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.net Title: The First Steps in Algebra Author: G. (George Albert) Wentworth Release Date: July 9, 2011 [EBook #36670] Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FIRST STEPS IN ALGEBRA *** Produced by Andrew D.
Hwang, Peter Vachuska, Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www. transcriber’s note Minor typographical corrections and presentational changes have been made without comment. This PDF file is optimized for screen viewing, but may easily be recompiled for printing. Please see the preamble of the LATEX source file for instructions.com THE FIRST STEPS IN ALGEBRA.
AUTHOR OF A SERIES OF TEXT-BOOKS IN MATHEMATICS.: PUBLISHED BY GINN & COMPANY.com Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1894, by G. WENTWORTH, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. All Rights Reserved. Presswork by Ginn & Co.
This book is written for pupils in the upper grades of gram- mar schools and the lower grades of high schools. The introduc- tion of the simple elements of Algebra into these grades will, it is thought, so stimulate the mental activity of the pupils, that they will make considerable progress in Algebra without detri- ment to their progress in Arithmetic, even if no more time is allowed for the two studies than is usually given to Arithmetic alone. The great danger in preparing an Algebra for very young pupils is that the author, in endeavoring to smooth the path of the learner, will sacrifice much of the educational value of the study. To avoid this real and serious danger, and at the same time to gain the required simplicity, great care has been given to the explanations of the fundamental operations and rules, the arrangement of topics, the model solutions of examples, and the making of easy examples for the pupils to solve.
Nearly all the examples throughout the book are new, and made expressly for beginners. The first chapter clears the way for quite a full treatment of simple integral equations with one unknown number. In the first two chapters only positive numbers are involved, and the learner is led to see the practical advantages of Algebra in its most interesting applications before he faces the difficulties of negative numbers. The third chapter contains a simple explanation of negative numbers.
The recognition of the facts that the real nature of iii www. iv subtraction is counting backwards, and that the real nature of multiplication is forming the product from the multiplicand pre- cisely as the multiplier is formed from unity, makes an easy road to the laws of addition and subtraction of algebraic numbers, and to the law of signs in multiplication and division. All the prin- ciples and rules of this chapter are illustrated and enforced by numerous examples involving simple algebraic expressions only. The ordinary processes with compound expressions, includ- ing simple cases of resolution into factors, and the treatment of fractions, naturally follow the third chapter.
The immediate succession of topics that require similar work is of the highest importance to the beginner, and it is hoped that the half-dozen chapters on algebraic expressions will prove interesting, and give sufficient readiness in the use of symbols. A chapter on fractional equations with one unknown num- ber, a chapter on simultaneous equations with two unknown numbers, and a chapter on quadratics follow in order. Only one method of elimination is given in simultaneous equations and one method of completing the square in quadratics. Moreover, the solution of the examples in quadratics requires the square roots of only small numbers such as every pupil knows who has learned the multiplication table.
In each of these three chapters a considerable number of problems is given to state and solve. By this means the learner is led to exercise his reasoning faculty, and to realize that the methods of Algebra require a strictly log- ical process. These problems, however, are divided into classes, and a model solution of an example of each class is given as a guide to the solution of other examples of that class. The course may end with the chapter on quadratics, but the www.
v simple questions of arithmetical progression and of geometrical progression are so interesting in themselves, and show so clearly the power of Algebra, that it will be a great loss not to take the short chapters on these series. The last chapter is on square and cube roots. It is expected that pupils who use this book will learn how to extract the square and cube roots by the simple formulas of Algebra, and be spared the necessity of committing to memory the long and tedious rules given in Arithmetic, rules that are generally for- gotten in less time than they are learned. Any corrections or suggestions will be thankfully received by the author.
A teachers’ edition is in press, containing solutions of ex- amples, and such suggestions as experience with beginners has shown to be valuable. Exeter, NH, April, 1894 www. Positive and Negative Numbers. Addition and Subtraction.
Multiplication and Division. Special Rules in Multiplication and Division. Common Factors and Multiples. Simultaneous Equations of the First Degree.
Square and Cube Roots.com FIRST STEPS IN ALGEBRA. The principal definitions are put at the beginning of the book for convenient reference. They are not to be committed to memory. It is a good plan to have definitions and explanations read aloud in the class, and to encourage pupils to make comments upon them, and ask questions about them.
Algebra, like Arithmetic, treats of numbers. In counting separate objects or in measuring magnitudes, the standards by which we count or measure are called units. Thus, in counting the boys in a school, the unit is a boy; in selling eggs by the dozen, the unit is a dozen eggs; in selling bricks by the thousand, the unit is a thousand bricks; in measuring short distances, the unit is an inch, a foot, or a yard; in measuring long distances, the unit is a rod or a mile. Repetitions of the unit are expressed by num- bers.
A number of specified units of any kind is called a quantity; as, 4 pounds, 5 oranges.com FIRST STEPS IN ALGEBRA. Number-Symbols in Arithmetic. Arithmetic em- ploys the arbitrary symbols, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0, called figures, to represent numbers. Number-Symbols in Algebra.
Algebra employs the letters of the alphabet in addition to the figures of Arithmetic to represent numbers. Letters are used as general symbols of numbers to which any particular values may be assigned. PRINCIPAL SIGNS OF OPERATIONS. The signs of the fundamental operations are the same in Algebra as in Arithmetic.
The Sign of Addition, +. The sign + is read plus. Thus, 4 + 3, read 4 plus 3, indicates that the number 3 is to be added to the number 4, a + b, read a plus b, indicates that the number b is to be added to the number a. The Sign of Subtraction, −.
The sign − is read minus. Thus, 4 − 3, read 4 minus 3, indicates that the number 3 is to be subtracted from the number 4, a − b, read a minus b, indicates that the number b is to be subtracted from the number a. The Sign of Multiplication, ×. The sign × is read times.
Thus, 4 × 3, read 4 times 3, indicates that the number 3 is to be multiplied by 4, a × b, read a times b, indicates that the number b is to be multiplied by the number a. 3 A dot is sometimes used for the sign of multiplication. Thus 2 · 3 · 4 · 5 means the same as 2 × 3 × 4 × 5. Either sign is read multiplied by when followed by the multiplier.
$a × b, or $a · b, is read a dollars multiplied by b. The Sign of Division, ÷. The sign ÷ is read divided by. Thus, 4 ÷ 2, read 4 divided by 2, indicates that the number 4 is to be divided by 2, a ÷ b, read a divided by b, indicates that the number a is to be divided by the number b.
Division is also indicated by writing the dividend above the divisor with a horizontal line between them. 4 a Thus, means the same as 4 ÷ 2; means the same as a ÷ b. 2 b OTHER SIGNS USED IN ALGEBRA. The Sign of Equality, =.
The sign = is read is equal to, when placed between two numbers and indicates that these two numbers are equal. Thus, 8+4 = 12 means that 8+4 and 12 stand for equal numbers; x + y = 20 means that x + y and 20 stand for equal numbers. The Sign of Inequality, > or <. The sign > or < is read is greater than and is less than respectively, and when placed between two numbers indicates that these two numbers are unequal, and that the number toward which the sign opens is the greater.com FIRST STEPS IN ALGEBRA.
4 Thus, 9+6 > 12 means that 9+6 is greater than 12; and 9+6 < 16 means that 9 + 6 is less than 16. The Sign of Deduction, ∴ The sign ∴ is read hence or therefore. The Sign of Continuation,. is read and so on.
The Signs of Aggregation. The signs of aggrega- tion are the bar |, the vinculum , the parenthesis ( ), the bracket [ ], and the brace { }. Thus, each of the expressions a , a + b, (a + b), [a + b], {a + b}, +b signifies that a + b is to be treated as a single number. When a number consists of the product of two or more numbers, each of these numbers is called a factor of the product.
The sign × is generally omitted between a figure and a letter, or between letters; thus, instead of 63 × a × b, we write 63ab; instead of a × b × c, we write abc. The expression abc must not be confounded with a + b + c. abc is a product; a + b + c is a sum. If a = 2, b = 3, c = 4, then abc = 2 × 3 × 4 = 24; but a + b + c = 2 + 3 + 4 = 9.
When a sign of operation is omitted in the notation of Arithmetic, it is always the sign of addition; but when a sign of operation is omitted in the notation of Algebra, it is always the sign of multiplication. Thus, 456 means 400 + 50 + 6, but 4ab means 4 × a × b. Factors expressed by letters are called literal factors; factors expressed by figures are called numerical factors. If one factor of a product is equal to 0, the product is equal to 0, whatever the values of the other factors.
Such a factor is called a zero factor. A known factor of a product which is prefixed to another factor, to show the number of times that factor is taken, is called a coefficient. Thus, in 7c, 7 is the coefficient of c; in 7ax, 7 is the coefficient of ax, or, if a is known, 7a is the coefficient of x. By coefficient, we generally mean the numerical coefficient with its sign.
If no numerical coefficient is written, 1 is under- stood. Thus, ax means the same as 1ax. Powers and Roots.