Agricultural Systems Agricultural Systems Agroecology and Rural Innovation for Development Second Edition Edited by Sieglinde Snapp Department of Plant, Soil and Microbial Sciences and Center for Global Change and Earth Observations, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States Barry Pound Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich, Chatham, United Kingdom Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier 125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom 525 B Street, Suite 1800, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, United States 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom Copyright r 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein.
In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN: 978-0-12-802070-8 For Information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at https://www.com/books-and-journals Publisher: Nikki Levy Acquisition Editor: Nancy Maragioglio Editorial Project Manager: Billie Jean Fernandez Production Project Manager: Julie-Ann Stansfield Designer: Christian Bilbow Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India List of Contributors Rachel Bezner Kerr Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States Malcolm Blackie University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom Anja Christinck Consultant, Seed4Change, Gersfeld, Germany Czech Conroy University of Greenwich, Chatham, United Kingdom Laurie E. Drinkwater Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States Louise E.
Jackson University of California, Davis, CA, United States George Kanyama-Phiri Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Lilongwe, Malawi Richard Lamboll University of Greenwich, London, United Kingdom Vicki Morrone Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States John Morton University of Greenwich, London, United Kingdom Barry Pound University of Greenwich, Chatham, United Kingdom Meagan Schipanski Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States Sieglinde Snapp Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States Tanya Stathers University of Greenwich, London, United Kingdom Peter Thorne International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), United Kingdom Robert Tripp Chiddingfold, United Kingdom Kate Wellard University of Greenwich, London, United Kingdom Eva Weltzien Consultant, formerly ICRISAT, Mali xiii Preface to the Second Edition This book is intended for students of agricultural science, ecology, environ- mental sciences, and rural development, researchers and scientists in agricul- tural development agencies, and practitioners of agricultural development in government extension programs, development agencies, and NGOs. There is an emphasis on developing country situations, and on smallholder production systems. This second edition has been significantly enhanced by the inclusion of two new chapters (on Sustainable Agricultural Intensification and Climate Change), and the updating of all chapters to reflect new evidence and new directions in agroecology and farming systems. Each chapter is written by experts in their topic, with both academic and field experience, providing a synthetic and holistic overview of agroecology applications to transforming farming systems and supporting rural innovation that include technical, social, economic, institutional, and political components.
The book is divided into four sections: the first section, Reinventing Farming Systems, introduces farming systems and the principles of agroecol- ogy, rural livelihoods, sustainable intensification, and sustainability. The second section, Resources for Agricultural Development, explores low-input technology, soil ecology, and nutrient flows, participatory plant breeding, and the role of livestock in farming systems. Section three, Context for Sustainable Agricultural Development, deepens understanding about inequalities in development (particularly gender inequality), the nature and spread of innovation in agriculture, supporting agriculture through outreach programs, and how agriculture is being, and will be, affected by climate change. The final section, Tying It All Together, takes a hard look at where we are now in terms of nutrition, wealth, and stability, and suggests a way forward.
Rural innovation and building capacity to improve agricultural systems are themes interwoven throughout, which we hope that you enjoy learning about through this brand new edition of the book. xv Chapter 1 Introduction George Kanyama-Phiri, Kate Wellard, and Sieglinde Snapp AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS IN A CHANGING WORLD Agriculture is the backbone of many developing economies. Despite rapid urbanization, agriculture continues to employ 65% of the work force in sub-Saharan Africa—70% of whom are female—and generates 32% of Africa’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (AGRA, 2014; World Bank, n. Agricultural systems are vital to tackling poverty and malnutrition.
Over the past two decades, there has been marked progress in reducing global poverty, and yet, 900 million people struggle to live on less than US$1.90 per day, the majority living in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia (World Bank, 2015). There were fewer undernourished people in 2015 compared to 25 years earlier: 795 million compared to 1.01 billion (FAO, 2015), but international hunger targets are far from being met. In sub-Saharan Africa almost one in four people are undernourished. Worldwide, 50 million chil- dren under 5 years are wasted, predominantly in South Asia, and 159 million are stunted, mainly in Africa and Asia (UNICEF, 2015).
Global agricultural performance has improved since 2000—one of the highest increases being in sub-Saharan Africa, where cereal production has grown annually by 3. Cereal yields are increasing globally by an average of 2% per annum. This represents an increase of 70 kg/ha per year over the last decade in Latin America and Southeast Asia, to an average yield of 2800 kg/ha. In sub-Saharan Africa part of the increase is due to the increase in the area under cultivation so grain yields have increased more slowly, stagnating at around 1000 kg/ha for many years, with a modest increase in recent years (Fig.
These average figures mask large variations between and within countries, and across seasons. In many countries, high population pressure with limited land holdings has resulted in continuous arable cultivation on the same piece of land, or extension of cultivation on fragile ecosystems such as steep slopes and river banks. These in turn can bring about biological, chemical, and physical land degradation. Food production has in many cases not kept pace with Agricultural Systems.
DOI: http://dx.00001-3 Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 3 4 SECTION | I Reinventing Farming Systems 4500 4000 3500 Cereal Yield (kg/ha) 3000 Latin America 2500 Sub-Saharan Africa 2000 South Asia 1500 World 1000 500 0 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 FIGURE 1.1 Cereal yield mean by region from 2006 to 14, World Bank Development Indicators accessed at http://databank.org/data/ on April 1, 2016. population growth in the face of shrinking land holdings.
This is com- pounded by adverse weather conditions caused by climate change. Evidence on global warming is unequivocal and shows an acceleration over the past 60 years. Climate projections show that heat waves are very likely to occur more often and last longer, and that extreme precipitation events—droughts and floods—will become more intense and frequent in many regions (IPCC, 2014). Climate change presents one of the most serious challenges to agricultural production in sub-Saharan Africa, and is the sub- ject of an all new chapter of this book (see Chapter 13: Climate Change and Agricultural Systems).
Boko et al. (2007) and Ringler et al. (2010) estimated that some countries are expected to experience up to a 50% decline in crop yields attributed to the negative impacts of climate change. The Malawi experience provides an illustration.
In the 2014 2 15 season, the country experienced the late onset of rains, followed by devastating floods with losses of life and property, and then a dry spell and an abbreviated crop growing season. The result was a 35% decline in average crop yields. Associated with these global climatic changes are increasing risks of epi- demics and invasive species such as weeds. Taken together, the need for rural innovation and adaptation to rapid change is more critical than ever.
Globalization and the liberalization of many developing economies of the world, especially in Africa, have not brought about commensurate agri- cultural economic growth and prosperity. Later chapters consider this essen- tial context to development; however, the primary focus of the book is on working with smallholder farmers and rural stakeholders, where educators, researchers, and extension advisors can make a difference. We recognize the critical need to engage with policy makers and consider fully the context for equitable development. Trade barriers and tariffs, including subsidies, cause considerable disparities and tend to favor Northern hemisphere investors in agricultural trade and related intellectual property rights.
The uneven Introduction Chapter | 1 5 Scale Local (A) Multiple drivers of change Past, current, (B) People, (C) Actual future places, system outcomes, impacts attributes Past, current, future • Climate National Influence change vulnerability, • Social • Population • Markets adaptive • Economic • Policies capacity, • Environmental • Institutions resilience • Political • Technology • Globalization Global FIGURE 1.2 Agricultural systems in a changing world, shown at multiple scales with key drivers of change. Adapted from Lamboll, R. Emerging approaches for responding to climate change in African agricultural advisory services: Challenges, opportunities and recommendations for an AFAAS climate change response strat- egy. AFAAS, Kampala, Uganda and FARA, Accra, Ghana.
sequencing of liberalization is impoverishing and widening the gap between rich and poor countries, resulting in limited competitive capability among developing countries. Conflict and wars have further impacted negatively on food production, and led to loss of property and life, displacement, and mis- ery throughout much of the developing world. Agricultural development in sub-Saharan Africa is being undermined by the HIV/AIDS pandemic, and by other emerging epidemics such as the Ebola virus. The productive work force, rural families, and research, exten- sion, and education staff have been badly affected.
Gender inequality is another major social challenge. Despite contributing 70% of the agricultural labor in many developing economies, women rarely have access to requisite resources and technologies as compared to their male counterparts. The con- sequence of inequality is a vicious cycle of poverty and food insecurity, accentuated in households headed by women and children. Agricultural systems are part of a complex, changing world (Fig.
Multiple drivers—including: climate change, population, technology, and mar- kets (A); exert influences on people, places, or agricultural systems (e., an ecologically-based agricultural system) (B). These drivers work across different ranges, from local to global, and result in, for example, increasing land pressure, greenhouse gas emissions, and climate change. The attributes of the population, place, or system (e., their assets) affect their vulnerability, resilience, and capac- ity to adapt to change. The interaction between the drivers of change and the pop- ulation, place, or system is the development process.
Actual outcomes, impacts, and adaptations (C) can be seen as the results of the development process—for 6 SECTION | I Reinventing Farming Systems example, changed livelihoods, poverty, well-being, and environment (Lamboll et al.