Khám Phá Nhiệt Động Lực Học: Cách Tiếp Cận Kỹ Thuật

Tài liệu nghiên cứu Thermodynamics an engineering approach, tổng hợp lý thuyết và thực hành, cung cấp kiến thức chuyên sâu về ., phục vụ nghiên cứu và ứng dụng thực tiễn

• Trường học: Trường Đại Học Kỹ Thuật
• Chuyên ngành: Kỹ Thuật Nhiệt
• Đề tài: Cách Tiếp Cận Kỹ Thuật Nhiệt Động Lực Học
• Loại tài liệu: sách giáo khoa
• Năm xuất bản: 2023
• Địa điểm: Hà Nội

Mục lục chi tiết

• 1. Chapter 1: Introduction and Basic Concepts
• 1.1. Thermodynamics and Energy Application Areas of Thermodynamics
• 1.2. Importance of Dimensions and Units Some SI and English Units Dimensional Homogeneity Unity Conversion Ratios
• 1.3. Systems and Control Volumes
• 1.4. Properties of a System Continuum
• 1.5. Density and Specific Gravity
• 1.6. State and Equilibrium The State Postulate
• 1.7. Processes and Cycles The Steady-Flow Process
• 1.8. Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics Temperature Scales The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90)
• 1.9. Pressure Variation of Pressure with Depth
• 1.10. The Manometer Other Pressure Measurement Devices
• 1.11. The Barometer and Atmospheric Pressure
• 1.12. Problem-Solving Technique Step 1: Problem Statement Step 2: Schematic Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations Step 4: Physical Laws Step 5: Properties Step 6: Calculations Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion Engineering Software Packages A Remark on Significant Digits Summary References and Suggested Reading Problems
• 2. Chapter 2: Energy Conversion and General Energy Analysis
• 2.1. Introduction
• 2.2. Forms of Energy Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy Mechanical Energy More on Nuclear Energy
• 2.3. Energy Transfer by Heat Historical Background on Heat
• 2.4. Energy Transfer by Work Electrical Work
• 2.5. Mechanical Forms of Work Shaft Work Spring Work Work Done on Elastic Solid Bars Work Associated with the Stretching of a Liquid Film Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body Nonmechanical Forms of Work
• 2.6. The First Law of Thermodynamics Energy Balance Energy Change of a System, ∆Esystem Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout
• 2.7. Energy Conversion Efficiencies
• 2.8. Energy and Environment Ozone and Smog Acid Rain The Greenhouse Effect: Global Warming and Climate Change Topic of Special Interest: Mechanisms of Heat Transfer Summary References and Suggested Reading Problems
• 3. Chapter 3: Properties of Pure Substances
• 3.1. Pure Substance
• 3.2. Phases of a Pure Substance
• 3.3. Phase-Change Processes of Pure Substances Compressed Liquid and Saturated Liquid Saturated Vapor and Superheated Vapor Saturation Temperature and Saturation Pressure Some Consequences of Tsat and Psat Dependence
• 3.4. Property Diagrams for Phase-Change Processes 1 The T-v Diagram 2 The P-v Diagram Extending the Diagrams to Include the Solid Phase 3 The P-T Diagram The P-v-T Surface
• 3.5. Property Tables Enthalpy—A Combination Property 1a Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor States 1b Saturated Liquid–Vapor Mixture 2 Superheated Vapor 3 Compressed Liquid Reference State and Reference Values
• 3.6. The Ideal-Gas Equation of State Is Water Vapor an Ideal Gas?
• 3.7. Compressibility Factor—A Measure of Deviation from Ideal-Gas Behavior
• 3.8. Other Equations of State Van der Waals Equation of State Beattie-Bridgeman Equation of State Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation of State Virial Equation of State Topic of Special Interest Vapor Pressure and Phase Equilibrium Summary References and Suggested Reading Problems
• 4. Chapter 4: Energy Analysis of Closed Systems
• 4.1. Moving Boundary Work Polytropic Process
• 4.2. Energy Balance for Closed Systems
• 4.3. Specific Heats
• 4.4. Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heats of Ideal Gases Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases
• 4.5. Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heat of Solids and Liquids Internal Energy Changes Enthalpy Changes Topic of Special Interest: Thermodynamic Aspects of Biological Systems Summary References and Suggested Reading Problems
• 5. Chapter 5: Mass and Energy Analysis of Control Volumes
• 5.1. Conservation of Mass Mass and Volume Flow Rates Conservation of Mass Principle Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes Special Case: Incompressible Flow
• 5.2. Flow Work and the Energy of a Flowing Fluid Total Energy of a Flowing Fluid Energy Transport by Mass
• 5.3. Energy Analysis of Steady-Flow Systems Energy Balance
• 5.4. Some Steady-Flow Engineering Devices 1 Nozzles and Diffusers 2 Turbines and Compressors 3 Throttling Valves 4a Mixing Chambers 4b Heat Exchangers 5 Pipe and Duct Flow
• 5.5. Energy Analysis of Unsteady-Flow Processes Mass Balance Energy Balance Topic of Special Interest: General Energy Equation Summary References and Suggested Reading Problems
• 6. Chapter 6: The Second Law of Thermodynamics
• 6.1. Introduction to the Second Law
• 6.2. Thermal Energy Reservoirs
• 6.3. Heat Engines Thermal Efficiency Can We Save Qout ? The Second Law of Thermodynamics: Kelvin–Planck Statement
• 6.5. Refrigerators and Heat Pumps Coefficient of Performance Heat Pumps The Second Law of Thermodynamics: Clausius Statement Equivalence of the Two Statements
• 6.6. Perpetual-Motion Machines
• 6.7. Reversible and Irreversible Processes Irreversibilities Internally and Externally Reversible Processes
• 6.8. The Carnot Cycle The Reversed Carnot Cycle
• 6.9. The Carnot Principles
• 6.10. The Thermodynamic Temperature Scale
• 6.11. The Carnot Heat Engine The Quality of Energy Quantity versus Quality in Daily Life
• 6.12. The Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump Topics of Special Interest: Household Refrigerators Summary References and Suggested Reading Problems
• 7. Chapter 7: Entropy
• 7.1. Entropy A Special Case: Internally Reversible Isothermal Heat Transfer Processes
• 7.2. The Increase of Entropy Principle Some Remarks about Entropy
• 7.3. Entropy Change of Pure Substances
• 7.4. Isentropic Processes
• 7.5. Property Diagrams Involving Entropy
• 7.6. What Is Entropy? Entropy and Entropy Generation in Daily Life
• 7.7. The T ds Relations
• 7.8. Entropy Change of Liquids and Solids
• 7.9. The Entropy Change of Ideal Gases Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis) Variable Specific Heats (Exact Analysis) Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis) Variable Specific Heats (Exact Analysis) Relative Pressure and Relative Specific Volume
• 7.10. Reversible Steady-Flow Work Proof that Steady-Flow Devices Deliver the Most and Consume the Least Work when the Process Is Reversible
• 7.11. Minimizing the Compressor Work Multistage Compression with Intercooling
• 7.12. Isentropic Efficiencies of Steady-Flow Devices Isentropic Efficiency of Turbines Isentropic Efficiencies of Compressors and Pumps Isentropic Efficiency of Nozzles
• 7.13. Entropy Balance Entropy Change of a System, ∆S system Mechanisms of Entropy Transfer, Sin and Sout 1 Heat Transfer 2 Mass Flow Entropy Generation, Sgen Closed Systems Control Volumes Entropy Generation Associated with a Heat Transfer Process Topics of Special Interest: Reducing the Cost of Compressed Air Summary References and Suggested Reading Problems
• 8. Chapter 8: Exergy: A Measure of Work Potential
• 8.1. Exergy: Work Potential of Energy Exergy (Work Potential) Associated with Kinetic and Potential Energy
• 8.2. Reversible Work and Irreversibility
• 8.3. Second-Law Efficiency, ηII
• 8.4. Exergy Change of a System Exergy of a Fixed Mass: Nonflow (or Closed System) Exergy Exergy of a Flow Stream: Flow (or Stream) Exergy
• 8.5. Exergy Transfer by Heat, Work, and Mass Exergy Transfer by Heat Transfer, Q Exergy Transfer by Work, W Exergy Transfer by Mass, m
• 8.6. The Decrease of Exergy Principle and Exergy Destruction Exergy Destruction
• 8.7. Exergy Balance: Closed Systems
• 8.8. Exergy Balance: Control Volumes Exergy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems Reversible Work, W rev Second-Law Efficiency of Steady-Flow Devices, ηII Topics of Special Interest: Second-Law Aspects of Daily Life Summary References and Suggested Reading Problems
• 9. Chapter 9: Gas Power Cycles
• 9.1. Basic Considerations in the Analysis of Power Cycles
• 9.2. The Carnot Cycle and Its Value in Engineering
• 9.3. Air-Standard Assumptions
• 9.4. An Overview of Reciprocating Engines
• 9.5. Otto Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines
• 9.6. Diesel Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Compression-Ignition Engines
• 9.7. Stirling and Ericsson Cycles
• 9.8. Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engines Development of Gas Turbines Deviation of Actual Gas-Turbine Cycles from Idealized Ones
• 9.9. The Brayton Cycle with Regeneration
• 9.10. The Brayton Cycle with Intercooling, Reheating, and Regeneration
• 9.11. Ideal Jet-Propulsion Cycles Modifications to Turbojet Engines
• 9.12. Second-Law Analysis of Gas Power Cycles Topics of Special Interest: Saving Fuel and Money by Driving Sensibly Summary References and Suggested Reading Problems
• 10. Chapter 10: Vapor and Combined Power Cycles
• 10.1. The Carnot Vapor Cycle
• 10.2. Rankine Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Vapor Power Cycles Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle
• 10.3. Deviation of Actual Vapor Power Cycles from Idealized Ones
• 10.4. How Can We Increase the Efficiency of the Rankine Cycle? Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers T low,av) Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures (Increases Thigh,av) Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh,av)
• 10.5. The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle
• 10.6. The Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle Open Feedwater Heaters Closed Feedwater Heaters
• 10.7. Second-Law Analysis of Vapor Power Cycles
• 10.8. Cogeneration
• 10.9. Combined Gas–Vapor Power Cycles Topics of Special Interest: Binary Vapor Cycles Summary References and Suggested Reading Problems
• 11. Chapter 11: Refrigeration Cycles
• 11.1. Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
• 11.2. The Reversed Carnot Cycle
• 11.3. The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
• 11.4. Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
• 11.5. Selecting the Right Refrigerant
• 11.6. Heat Pump Systems
• 11.7. Innovative Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Systems Cascade Refrigeration Systems Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems Multipurpose Refrigeration Systems with a Single Compressor Liquefaction of Gases
• 11.8. Gas Refrigeration Cycles
• 11.9. Absorption Refrigeration Systems Topics of Special Interest: Thermoelectric Power Generation and Refrigeration Systems Summary References and Suggested Reading Problems
• 12. Chapter 12: Thermodynamic Property Relations
• 12.1. A Little Math—Partial Derivatives and Associated Relations Partial Differentials Partial Differential Relations
• 12.2. The Maxwell Relations
• 12.3. The Clapeyron Equation
• 12.4. General Relations for du, dh, ds, Cv, and Cp Internal Energy Changes Enthalpy Changes Entropy Changes Specific Heats Cv and Cp
• 12.5. The Joule-Thomson Coefficient
• 12.6. The ∆h, ∆u, and ∆s of Real Gases Enthalpy Changes of Real Gases Internal Energy Changes of Real Gases Entropy Changes of Real Gases Summary References and Suggested Reading Problems
• 13. Chapter 13: Gas Mixtures
• 13.1. Composition of a Gas Mixture: Mass and Mole Fractions
• 13.2. P-v-T Behavior of Gas Mixtures: Ideal and Real Gases Ideal-Gas Mixtures Real-Gas Mixtures
• 13.3. Properties of Gas Mixtures: Ideal and Real Gases Ideal-Gas Mixtures Real-Gas Mixtures Topics of Special Interest: Chemical Potential and the Separation Work of Mixtures Ideal Gas Mixtures and Ideal Solutions Minimum Work of Separation of Mixtures Reversible Mixing Processes Second-Law Efficiency Special-Case: Separation of a Two-Component Mixture An Application: Desalination Processes
• 14. Chapter 14: Gas–Vapor Mixtures and Air-Conditioning
• 14.1. Dry and Atmospheric Air
• 14.2. Specific and Relative Humidity of Air
• 14.3. Dew-Point Temperature
• 14.4. Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-Bulb Temperatures
• 14.5. The Psychrometric Chart
• 14.6. Human Comfort and Air-Conditioning
• 14.7. Air-Conditioning Processes Simple Heating and Cooling (w = constant) Heating with Humidification Cooling with Dehumidification Evaporative Cooling Adiabatic Mixing of Airstreams Wet Cooling Towers Summary References and Suggested Reading Problems
• 15. Chapter 15: Chemical Reactions
• 15.1. Fuels and Combustion
• 15.2. Theoretical and Actual Combustion Processes
• 15.3. Enthalpy of Formation and Enthalpy of Combustion
• 15.4. First-Law Analysis of Reacting Systems Steady-Flow Systems Closed Systems
• 15.5. Adiabatic Flame Temperature
• 15.6. Entropy Change of Reacting Systems
• 15.7. Second-Law Analysis of Reacting systems Topics of Special Interest: Fuel Cells Summary References and Suggested Reading Problems
• 16. Chapter 16: Chemical and Phase Equilibrium
• 16.1. Criterion for Chemical Equilibrium
• 16.2. The Equilibrium Constant for Ideal-Gas Mixtures
• 16.3. Some Remarks about the KP of Ideal-Gas Mixtures
• 16.4. Chemical Equilibrium for Simultaneous Reactions
• 16.5. Variation of KP with Temperature
• 16.6. Phase Equilibrium Phase Equilibrium for a Single-Component System The Phase Rule Phase Equilibrium for a Multicomponent System Summary References and Suggested Reading Problems
• 17. Chapter 17: Compressible Flow
• 17.1. Stagnation Properties
• 17.2. Speed of Sound and Mach Number
• 17.3. One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases
• 17.4. Isentropic Flow through Nozzles Converging Nozzles Converging–Diverging Nozzles
• 17.5. Shock Waves and Expansion Normal Shocks Oblique Shocks Prandtl–Meyer Expansion Waves
• 17.6. Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and Negligible Friction (Rayleigh Flow) Property Relations for Rayleigh Flow Choked Rayleigh Flow
• 17.7. Steam Nozzles Summary References and Suggested Reading Problems
• Appendix 1 Property Tables and Charts (SI Units)
• Appendix 2 Property Tables and Charts (English Units)
• PREFACE BACKGROUND

Tóm tắt

I. Giới thiệu về Kỹ Thuật Nhiệt Động Lực Học

Kỹ thuật nhiệt động lực học là một lĩnh vực quan trọng trong khoa học kỹ thuật, nghiên cứu về năng lượng và các quá trình chuyển đổi năng lượng. Nó có ứng dụng rộng rãi trong nhiều lĩnh vực như cơ khí, điện tử, và môi trường. Hiểu rõ về nguyên lý nhiệt động lực học giúp các kỹ sư thiết kế và tối ưu hóa hệ thống năng lượng hiệu quả hơn.

1.1. Các khái niệm cơ bản trong Nhiệt Động Lực Học

Nhiệt động lực học bao gồm các khái niệm như hệ thống, trạng thái, và quá trình. Hệ thống có thể là kín hoặc mở, và trạng thái của hệ thống được xác định bởi các thuộc tính như áp suất, nhiệt độ và thể tích.

1.2. Tầm quan trọng của Nhiệt Động Lực Học trong kỹ thuật

Kỹ thuật nhiệt động lực học không chỉ giúp tối ưu hóa quy trình sản xuất mà còn đóng vai trò quan trọng trong việc phát triển các công nghệ mới, như năng lượng tái tạo và hệ thống làm lạnh.

II. Vấn đề và Thách thức trong Nhiệt Động Lực Học

Mặc dù kỹ thuật nhiệt động lực học đã phát triển mạnh mẽ, nhưng vẫn tồn tại nhiều thách thức. Các vấn đề như hiệu suất năng lượng thấp, ô nhiễm môi trường và sự cạn kiệt tài nguyên thiên nhiên đang đặt ra yêu cầu cấp bách cho các giải pháp bền vững.

2.1. Hiệu suất năng lượng và ô nhiễm

Nhiều hệ thống hiện tại vẫn chưa đạt được hiệu suất tối ưu, dẫn đến lãng phí năng lượng và phát thải khí nhà kính. Cần có các nghiên cứu để cải thiện hiệu suất và giảm thiểu tác động môi trường.

2.2. Tài nguyên thiên nhiên và bền vững

Sự cạn kiệt tài nguyên thiên nhiên yêu cầu các kỹ sư phải tìm kiếm các nguồn năng lượng thay thế và phát triển các công nghệ tiết kiệm năng lượng hơn.

III. Phương pháp Giải quyết Vấn đề trong Nhiệt Động Lực Học

Để giải quyết các thách thức trong kỹ thuật nhiệt động lực học, nhiều phương pháp đã được phát triển. Các phương pháp này bao gồm tối ưu hóa quy trình, sử dụng công nghệ mới và nghiên cứu các hệ thống năng lượng tái tạo.

3.1. Tối ưu hóa quy trình sản xuất

Tối ưu hóa quy trình sản xuất giúp giảm thiểu lãng phí năng lượng và tăng hiệu suất. Các kỹ thuật như phân tích chu trình và mô phỏng nhiệt động lực học được sử dụng để đạt được mục tiêu này.

3.2. Ứng dụng công nghệ mới

Công nghệ mới như năng lượng mặt trời và gió đang được áp dụng để thay thế các nguồn năng lượng truyền thống, giúp giảm thiểu ô nhiễm và tiết kiệm tài nguyên.

IV. Ứng dụng Thực tiễn của Nhiệt Động Lực Học

Kỹ thuật nhiệt động lực học có nhiều ứng dụng thực tiễn trong đời sống hàng ngày. Từ các hệ thống điều hòa không khí đến các nhà máy điện, nó đóng vai trò quan trọng trong việc cung cấp năng lượng và duy trì sự thoải mái cho con người.

4.1. Hệ thống điều hòa không khí

Hệ thống điều hòa không khí sử dụng các nguyên lý của nhiệt động lực học để điều chỉnh nhiệt độ và độ ẩm trong không gian sống, mang lại sự thoải mái cho người sử dụng.

4.2. Nhà máy điện và năng lượng tái tạo

Các nhà máy điện sử dụng nguyên lý nhiệt động lực học để chuyển đổi năng lượng từ nhiên liệu thành điện năng, trong khi năng lượng tái tạo đang ngày càng được chú trọng để giảm thiểu tác động đến môi trường.

V. Kết luận và Tương lai của Kỹ Thuật Nhiệt Động Lực Học

Kỹ thuật nhiệt động lực học sẽ tiếp tục phát triển và đóng vai trò quan trọng trong việc giải quyết các vấn đề năng lượng toàn cầu. Tương lai của lĩnh vực này hứa hẹn sẽ có nhiều đổi mới và cải tiến, đặc biệt trong bối cảnh biến đổi khí hậu.

5.1. Đổi mới công nghệ và nghiên cứu

Nghiên cứu và phát triển công nghệ mới sẽ là chìa khóa để cải thiện hiệu suất năng lượng và giảm thiểu ô nhiễm. Các kỹ sư cần tiếp tục khám phá các giải pháp sáng tạo.

5.2. Hướng tới một tương lai bền vững

Tương lai của kỹ thuật nhiệt động lực học sẽ tập trung vào việc phát triển các hệ thống năng lượng bền vững, giúp bảo vệ môi trường và đảm bảo nguồn năng lượng cho các thế hệ sau.

Trích đoạn nội dung tài liệu

Chapter 1 Introduction and Basic Concepts 1-1 Thermodynamics and Energy Application Areas of Thermodynamics 1-2 Importance of Dimensions and Units Some SI and English Units Dimensional Homogeneity Unity Conversion Ratios 1-3 Systems and Control Volumes 1-4 Properties of a System Continuum 1-5 Density and Specific Gravity 1-6 State and Equilibrium The State Postulate 1-7 Processes and Cycles The Steady-Flow Process 1-8 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics Temperature Scales The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) 1-9 Pressure Variation of Pressure with Depth 1-10 The Manometer Other Pressure Measurement Devices 1-11 The Barometer and Atmospheric Pressure 1-12 Problem-Solving Technique Step 1: Problem Statement Step 2: Schematic Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations Step 4: Physical Laws Step 5: Properties Step 6: Calculations Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion Engineering Software Packages A Remark on Significant Digits Summary References and Suggested Reading Problems Chapter 2 Energy Conversion and General Energy Analysis 2-1 Introduction 2-2 Forms of Energy Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy Mechanical Energy More on Nuclear Energy 2-3 Energy Transfer by Heat Historical Background on Heat 2-4 Energy Transfer by Work Electrical Work 2-5 Mechanical Forms of Work Shaft Work Spring Work Work Done on Elastic Solid Bars Work Associated with the Stretching of a Liquid Film Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body Nonmechanical Forms of Work 2-6 The First Law of Thermodynamics Energy Balance Energy Change of a System, ∆Esystem Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout 2-7 Energy Conversion Efficiencies 2-8 Energy and Environment Ozone and Smog Acid Rain The Greenhouse Effect: Global Warming and Climate Change Topic of Special Interest: Mechanisms of Heat Transfer Summary References and Suggested Reading Problems Chapter 3 Properties of Pure Substances 3-1 Pure Substance 3-2 Phases of a Pure Substance 3-3 Phase-Change Processes of Pure Substances Compressed Liquid and Saturated Liquid Saturated Vapor and Superheated Vapor Saturation Temperature and Saturation Pressure Some Consequences of Tsat and Psat Dependence 3-4 Property Diagrams for Phase-Change Processes 1 The T-v Diagram 2 The P-v Diagram Extending the Diagrams to Include the Solid Phase 3 The P-T Diagram The P-v-T Surface 3-5 Property Tables Enthalpy—A Combination Property 1a Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor States 1b Saturated Liquid–Vapor Mixture 2 Superheated Vapor 3 Compressed Liquid Reference State and Reference Values 3-6 The Ideal-Gas Equation of State Is Water Vapor an Ideal Gas? 3-7 Compressibility Factor—A Measure of Deviation from Ideal-Gas Behavior 3-8 Other Equations of State Van der Waals Equation of State Beattie-Bridgeman Equation of State Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation of State Virial Equation of State Topic of Special Interest Vapor Pressure and Phase Equilibrium Summary References and Suggested Reading Problems Chapter 4 Energy Analysis of Closed Systems 4-1 Moving Boundary Work Polytropic Process 4-2 Energy Balance for Closed Systems 4-3 Specific Heats 4-4 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heats of Ideal Gases Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases 4-5 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heat of Solids and Liquids Internal Energy Changes Enthalpy Changes Topic of Special Interest: Thermodynamic Aspects of Biological Systems Summary References and Suggested Reading Problems Chapter 5 Mass and Energy Analysis of Control Volumes 5-1 Conservation of Mass Mass and Volume Flow Rates Conservation of Mass Principle Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes Special Case: Incompressible Flow 5-2 Flow Work and the Energy of a Flowing Fluid Total Energy of a Flowing Fluid Energy Transport by Mass 5-3 Energy Analysis of Steady-Flow Systems Energy Balance 5-4 Some Steady-Flow Engineering Devices 1 Nozzles and Diffusers 2 Turbines and Compressors 3 Throttling Valves 4a Mixing Chambers 4b Heat Exchangers 5 Pipe and Duct Flow 5-5 Energy Analysis of Unsteady-Flow Processes Mass Balance Energy Balance Topic of Special Interest: General Energy Equation Summary References and Suggested Reading Problems Chapter 6 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 6-1 Introduction to the Second Law 6-2 Thermal Energy Reservoirs 6-3 Heat Engines Thermal Efficiency Can We Save Qout ? The Second Law of Thermodynamics: Kelvin–Planck Statement 6-5 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps Coefficient of Performance Heat Pumps The Second Law of Thermodynamics: Clausius Statement Equivalence of the Two Statements 6-6 Perpetual-Motion Machines 6-7 Reversible and Irreversible Processes Irreversibilities Internally and Externally Reversible Processes 6-8 The Carnot Cycle The Reversed Carnot Cycle 6-9 The Carnot Principles 6-10 The Thermodynamic Temperature Scale 6-11 The Carnot Heat Engine The Quality of Energy Quantity versus Quality in Daily Life 6-12 The Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump Topics of Special Interest: Household Refrigerators Summary References and Suggested Reading Problems Chapter 7 Entropy 7-1 Entropy A Special Case: Internally Reversible Isothermal Heat Transfer Processes 7-2 The Increase of Entropy Principle Some Remarks about Entropy 7-3 Entropy Change of Pure Substances 7-4 Isentropic Processes 7-5 Property Diagrams Involving Entropy 7-6 What Is Entropy? Entropy and Entropy Generation in Daily Life 7-7 The T ds Relations 7-8 Entropy Change of Liquids and Solids 7-9 The Entropy Change of Ideal Gases Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis) Variable Specific Heats (Exact Analysis) Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis) Variable Specific Heats (Exact Analysis) Relative Pressure and Relative Specific Volume 7-10 Reversible Steady-Flow Work Proof that Steady-Flow Devices Deliver the Most and Consume the Least Work when the Process Is Reversible 7-11 Minimizing the Compressor Work Multistage Compression with Intercooling 7-12 Isentropic Efficiencies of Steady-Flow Devices Isentropic Efficiency of Turbines Isentropic Efficiencies of Compressors and Pumps Isentropic Efficiency of Nozzles 7-13 Entropy Balance Entropy Change of a System, ∆S system Mechanisms of Entropy Transfer, Sin and Sout 1 Heat Transfer 2 Mass Flow Entropy Generation, Sgen Closed Systems Control Volumes Entropy Generation Associated with a Heat Transfer Process Topics of Special Interest: Reducing the Cost of Compressed Air Summary References and Suggested Reading Problems Chapter 8 Exergy: A Measure of Work Potential 8-1 Exergy: Work Potential of Energy Exergy (Work Potential) Associated with Kinetic and Potential Energy 8-2 Reversible Work and Irreversibility 8-3 Second-Law Efficiency, ηII 8-4 Exergy Change of a System Exergy of a Fixed Mass: Nonflow (or Closed System) Exergy Exergy of a Flow Stream: Flow (or Stream) Exergy 8-5 Exergy Transfer by Heat, Work, and Mass Exergy Transfer by Heat Transfer, Q Exergy Transfer by Work, W Exergy Transfer by Mass, m 8-6 The Decrease of Exergy Principle and Exergy Destruction Exergy Destruction 8-7 Exergy Balance: Closed Systems 8-8 Exergy Balance: Control Volumes Exergy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems Reversible Work, W rev Second-Law Efficiency of Steady-Flow Devices, ηII Topics of Special Interest: Second-Law Aspects of Daily Life Summary References and Suggested Reading Problems Chapter 9 Gas Power Cycles 9-1 Basic Considerations in the Analysis of Power Cycles 9-2 The Carnot Cycle and Its Value in Engineering 9-3 Air-Standard Assumptions 9-4 An Overview of Reciprocating Engines 9-5 Otto Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines 9-6 Diesel Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Compression-Ignition Engines 9-7 Stirling and Ericsson Cycles 9-8 Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engines Development of Gas Turbines Deviation of Actual Gas-Turbine Cycles from Idealized Ones 9-9 The Brayton Cycle with Regeneration 9-10 The Brayton Cycle with Intercooling, Reheating, and Regeneration 9-11 Ideal Jet-Propulsion Cycles Modifications to Turbojet Engines 9-12 Second-Law Analysis of Gas Power Cycles Topics of Special Interest: Saving Fuel and Money by Driving Sensibly Summary References and Suggested Reading Problems Chapter 10 Vapor and Combined Power Cycles 10-1 The Carnot Vapor Cycle 10-2 Rankine Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Vapor Power Cycles Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle 10-3 Deviation of Actual Vapor Power Cycles from Idealized Ones 10-4 How Can We Increase the Efficiency of the Rankine Cycle?