Automotive Engineering Note from the Publisher This book has been compiled using extracts from the The extracts have been taken directly from the above following books within the range of Automotive source books, with some small editorial changes. These Engineering books in the Elsevier collection: changes have entailed the re-numbering of Sections and Figures. In view of the breadth of content and style of the Blundell, M and Harty, D. (2004) The Multibody Systems source books, there is some overlap and repetition of Approach to Vehicle Dynamics, 9780750651127 material between chapters and significant differences in Brown, J.
(2001) Motor style, but these features have been left in order to retain Vehicle Structures, 9780750651349 the flavour and readability of the individual chapters. (2003) Materials for Automobile Bodies, 9780750656924 Units of measure Fenton, J. (2001) Lightweight Electric/ Units are provided in either SI or IP units. A conversion Hybrid Vehicle Design, 9780750650922 table for these units is provided at the front of the Garrett, T.
Motor Vehicle 13e, 9780750644495 Happian-Smith, J (2001) Introduction to Modern Vehicle Upgrade to an Electronic Version Design, 9780750661294 An electronic version of Automotive Engineering, the Heisler, H. (1998) Vehicle and Engine Technology, Automotive Engineering e-Mega Reference, 9781856175784 9780340691861 A fully searchable Mega Reference eBook, providing all Martyr, A. (2007) Engine Testing 3e, the essential material needed by Automotive Engineers 9780750684392 on a day-to-day basis. (2005) Tyre and Vehicle Dynamics, Fundamentals, key techniques, engineering best 9780750669184 practice and rules-of-thumb at one quick click of Reimpell, J.
(2001) Automotive a button Chassis: Engineering Principles, 9780750650540 Ribbens, W. (2003) Understanding Automotive Electron- Over 1,500 pages of reference material, including over ics, 9780750675994 1,000 pages not included in the print edition Vlacic, L. (2001) Intelligent Vehicle Tech- Go to http://www.com/9781856175777 nologies, 9780750650939 and click on Ebook Available Automotive Engineering Powertrain, Chassis System and Vehicle Body Edited by David A. Crolla Amsterdam $ Boston $ Heidelberg $ London $ New York $ Oxford Paris $ San Diego $ San Francisco $ Sydney $ Tokyo Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA First edition 2009 Copyright Ó 2009 Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (+44) (0) 1865 843830; fax (+44) (0) 1865 853333; email: permissions@elsevier. Alternatively visit the Science and Technology website at www.com/rights for further information Notice No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN: 978-1-85617-577-7 For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications visit our web site at elsevierdirect.com Printed and bound in the United States of America 09 10 11 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Contents Section 1 INTRODUCTION TO ENGINE DESIGN .1 Piston-engines cycles of operation. 3 Section 2 ENGINE TESTING .1 Measurement of torque, power, speed and fuel consumption; acceptance and type tests, accuracy of the measurements.
21 Section 3 ENGINE EMISSIONS. 53 Section 4 DIGITAL ENGINE CONTROL .1 Digital engine control systems .1 Transmissions and driveline. 107 Section 6 ELECTRIC VEHICLES .1 Battery/fuel-cell EV design packages. 143 Section 7 HYBRID VEHICLES .1 Hybrid vehicle design .1 Types of suspension and drive .1 Tyres and wheels .1 Tyre characteristics and vehicle handling and stability.
361 v CONTENTS Section 13 VEHICLE CONTROL SYSTEMS .1 Vehicle motion control. 393 Section 14 INTELLIGENT TRANSPORT SYSTEMS .1 Global positioning technology. 437 Section 15 VEHICLE MODELLING .1 Modelling and assembly of the full vehicle. 475 Section 16 STRUCTURAL DESIGN .1 Terminology and overview of vehicle structure types .2 Standard sedan (saloon) – baseline load paths.
542 Section 17 VEHICLE SAFETY .1 Design and material utilization .2 Materials for consideration and use in automotive body structures .1 Body design: aerodynamics .1 Vehicle refinement: purpose and targets. 675 Section 21 INTERIOR NOISE .1 Interior noise: assessment and control. 687 Section 22 EXTERIOR NOISE .1 Exterior noise: assessment and control. 739 Section 23 INSTRUMENTATION AND TELEMATICS .1 Automotive instrumentation and telematics.
809 vi Section One Section One Section One Section One Section One Section One Introduction to engine design 1 This page is left intentionally left blank Chapter 1.1 Piston-engine cycles of operation Heinz Heisler 1.1 The internal-combustion engine The piston engine is known as an internal-combustion heat-engine. The concept of the piston engine is that a supply of air-and-fuel mixture is fed to the inside of the cylinder where it is compressed and then burnt. This internal combustion releases heat energy which is then converted into useful mechanical work as the high gas pressures generated force the piston to move along its stroke in the cylinder. It can be said, therefore, that a heat-engine is merely an energy transformer.
To enable the piston movement to be harnessed, the driving thrust on the piston is transmitted by means of a connecting-rod to a crankshaft whose function is to convert the linear piston motion in the cylinder to a rotary crankshaft movement (Fig. The piston can thus be made to repeat its movement to and fro, due to the constraints of the crankshaft crankpin’s circular path and the guiding cylinder. The backward-and-forward displacement of the Fig.1-1 Pictorial view of the basic engine. piston is generally referred to as the reciprocating motion of the piston, so these power units are also known as reciprocating engines.
harness the working gases. It also provides a jacket to contain a liquid coolant.1 Engine components and terms Cylinder head This casting encloses the combus- tion end of the cylinder block and houses both the inlet The main problem in understanding the construction of and exhaust poppet-valves and their ports to admit air– the reciprocating piston engine is being able to identify fuel mixture and to exhaust the combustion products. and name the various parts making up the power unit. To Crankcase This is a cast rigid structure which sup- this end, the following briefly describes the major ports and houses the crankshaft and bearings.
It is usually components and the names given to them (Figs.1-1 cast as a mono-construction with the cylinder block. Sump This is a pressed-steel or cast-aluminium- Cylinder block This is a cast structure with cylin- alloy container which encloses the bottom of the crank- drical holes bored to guide and support the pistons and to case and provides a reservoir for the engine’s lubricant. Vehicle and Engine Technology, ISBN: 9780340691861 Copyright Ó 1998 Heinz Heisler. All rights of reproduction, in any form, reserved.1 Piston-engine cycles of operation Fig.1-2 Sectional view of the basic engine.
Piston This is a pressure-tight cylindrical plunger so that the connecting-rod is free to oscillate relative to the which is subjected to the expanding gas pressure. Its cylinder axis as it moves to and fro in the cylinder. function is to convert the gas pressure from combustion Big-end This refers to the joint between the into a concentrated driving thrust along the connecting- connecting-rod and the crankshaft big-end journal which rod. It must therefore also act as a guide for the small- provides the relative angular movement between the two end of the connecting-rod.
components as the engine rotates. Piston rings These are circular rings which seal the Main-ends This refers to the rubbing pairs formed gaps made between the piston and the cylinder, their between the crankshaft main journals and their re- object being to prevent gas escaping and to control the spective plain bearings mounted in the crankcase. amount of lubricant which is allowed to reach the top of Line of stroke The centre path the piston is forced the cylinder. to follow due to the constraints of the cylinder is known Gudgeon-pin This pin transfers the thrust from the as the line of stroke.
piston to the connecting-rod small-end while permitting Inner and outer dead centres When the crankarm the rod to rock to and fro as the crankshaft rotates. and the connecting-rod are aligned along the line of Connecting-rod This acts as both a strut and a tie stroke, the piston will be in either one of its two ex- link-rod. It transmits the linear pressure impulses acting treme positions. If the piston is at its closest position to on the piston to the crankshaft big-end journal, where the cylinder head, the crank and piston are said to be at they are converted into turning-effort.
inner dead centre (IDC) or top dead centre (TDC). Crankshaft A simple crankshaft consists of a cir- With the piston at its furthest position from the cyl- cular-sectioned shaft which is bent or cranked to form inder head, the crank and piston are said to be at outer two perpendicular crank-arms and an offset big-end dead centre (ODC) or bottom dead centre (BDC). The unbent part of the shaft provides the main These reference points are of considerable importance journals. The crankshaft is indirectly linked by the for valve-to-crankshaft timing and for either ignition or connecting-rod to the piston – this enables the straight- injection settings.
line motion of the piston to be transformed into a rotary Clearance volume The space between the cylinder motion at the crankshaft about the main-journal axis. head and the piston crown at TDC is known as the Crankshaft journals These are highly finished cy- clearance volume or the combustion-chamber space. lindrical pins machined parallel on both the centre axes Crank-throw The distance from the centre of the and the offset axes of the crankshaft. When assembled, crankshaft main journal to the centre of the big-end these journals rotate in plain bush-type bearings mounted journal is known as the crank-throw.
This radial length in the crankcase (the main journals) and in one end of the influences the leverage the gas pressure acting on the connecting-rod (the big-end journal). piston can apply in rotating the crankshaft. Small-end This refers to the hinged joint made by the Piston stroke The piston movement from IDC to gudgeon-pin between the piston and the connecting-rod ODC is known as the piston stroke and corresponds 4 Piston-engine cycles of operation CHAPTER 1.1 to the crankshaft rotating half a revolution or 180. It is proportions ranging from 10 to 17 parts of air to one also equal to twice the crank-throw.
part of petrol by weight. L ¼ 2R An engine which induces fresh charge by means of where L ¼ piston stroke a depression in the cylinder is said to be ‘normally aspi- and R ¼ crank-throw rated’ or ‘naturally aspirated’. Compression stroke (Fig.1-3(b)) Both the inlet Thus a long or short stroke will enable a large or small and the exhaust valves are closed. The piston begins to turning-effort to be applied to the crankshaft ascend towards the cylinder head (Fig.
induced air-and-petrol charge is progressively com- Cylinder bore The cylinder block is initially cast pressed to something of the order of one-eighth to one- with sand cores occupying the cylinder spaces. After the tenth of the cylinder’s original volume at the piston’s sand cores have been removed, the rough holes are ma- innermost position.