ELECTRIC AND HYBRID VEHICLES POWER SOURCES, MODELS, SUSTAINABILITY, INFRASTRUCTURE AND THE MARKET Gianfranco Pistoia Consultant, Rome, Italy Gianfranco.it Amsterdam • Boston • Heidelberg • London • New York • Oxford Paris • San Diego • San Francisco • Singapore • Sydney • Tokyo Elsevier Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK First edition 2010 Copyright © 2010 Elsevier B. All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (+44) (0) 1865 843830; fax (+44) (0) 1865 853333; email: permissions@elsevier. Alternatively you can submit your request online by visiting the Elsevier web site at http://elsevier.com/locate/permissions, and selecting Obtaining permission to use Elsevier material Notice No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN: 978-0-444-53565-8 For information on all Elsevier publications visit our website at books.com Printed and bound in the Great Britain 10 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Working together to grow libraries in developing countries www.org CONTRIBUTORS Paul Albertus Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA James E.
Anderson Systems Analytics and Environmental Sciences Department, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan, USA Ashish Arora Exponent Failure Analysis Associates, 23445 North 19th Avenue, Phoenix, AZ 85027, USA Jonn Axsen Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California at Davis, 2028 Academic Surge, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA Thomas H. Bradley Department of Mechanical Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523 1374, USA Michel Broussely Formerly Scientific Director of Specialty Battery Division at Saft, France, 53 Avenue de Poitiers, 86240 Ligugé, France Andrew F. Burke Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California at Davis, 2028 Academic Surge, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA Mark A. Delucchi Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA Ibrahim Dincer Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Ontario, Institute of Technology (UOIT), Oshawa, Ontario, Canada Matthieu Dubarry Hawai’i Natural Energy Institute, SOEST, University of Hawai’i at Manoa Honolulu, HI 96822, USA Ulrich Eberle Hydrogen, Fuel Cell & Electric Propulsion Research Strategy, GM Alternative Propulsion Center Europe, Adam Opel GmbH, IPC MK-01, 65423 Rüsselsheim, Germany Tiago Farias Department of Mechanical Engineering, IDMEC/IST, Instituto Superior Técnico, Technical University of Lisbon, Av.
Rovisco Pais, 1 Pav. Mecânica I, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal Horst E. Friedrich Institute of Vehicle Concepts, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Stuttgart, Germany xiii xiv Contributors Daniel D. Friel Battery Management Solutions, Texas Instruments, Inc., 607 Herndon Parkway, Suite 100, Herndon, VA 20170, USA John Garbak U.
Department of Energy, Washington, DC 20585, USA Benjamin Geller Department of Mechanical Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1374, USA Maria Grahn Department of Energy and Environment, Physical Resource Theory, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg, Sweden Rittmar von Helmolt Hydrogen, Fuel Cell & Electric Propulsion Research Strategy, GM Alternative Propulsion Center Europe, Adam Opel GmbH, IPC MK-01, 65423 Rüsselsheim, Germany Mohammed M.Hussain National Research Council – Institute of Fuel Cell Innovation, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada Kenneth S. Kurani Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California at Davis, 2028 Academic Surge, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA Jennifer Kurtz National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401, USA Bor Yann Liaw Hawai’i Natural Energy Institute, SOEST, University of Hawai’i at Manoa Honolulu, HI 96822, USA Timothy E. Lipman Transportation Sustainability Research Center, University of California–Berkeley, 2614 Dwight Way, MC 1782, Berkeley, CA, 94720-1782, USA Thomas Livernois Exponent Failure Analysis Associates, 39100 Country Club Drive, Farmington Hills, MI 48331, USA Chris Manzie Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia Tony Markel National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1617 Cole Blvd., Golden, CO 80401, USA Julien Matheys Department of Electrical Engineering and Energy Technology (ETEC), Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, Brussels, Belgium Contributors xv Noshirwan K. Medora Exponent Failure Analysis Associates, 23445 North 19th Avenue, Phoenix, AZ 85027, USA Peter Mock Institute of Vehicle Concepts, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Stuttgart, Germany John Newman Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA Fabio Orecchini GRA (Automotive Research Group) and CIRPS (Interuniversity Research Centre for Sustain able Development), “La Sapienza” University of Rome, Piazza S.
Pietro in Vincoli 10, 00184 Rome, Italy Ahmad A. Pesaran National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1617 Cole Blvd., Golden, CO 80401, USA Casey Quinn Department of Mechanical Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1374, USA Todd Ramsden National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401, USA Marc A. Rosen Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Ontario, Institute of Technology (UOIT), Oshawa, Ontario, Canada Adriano Santiangeli GRA (Automotive Research Group) and CIRPS (Interuniversity Research Centre for Sustain able Development), “La Sapienza” University of Rome, Piazza S. Pietro in Vincoli 10, 00184 Rome, Italy Stephan A.
Schmid Institute of Vehicle Concepts, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Stuttgart, Germany Carla Silva Department of Mechanical Engineering, IDMEC/IST, Instituto Superior Técnico, Technical University of Lisbon, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1 Pav. Mecânica I, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal Kandler Smith National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1617 Cole Blvd., Golden, CO 80401, USA Bent Sørensen Department of Environmental, Social and Spatial Change, Bld.1, Universitetsvej 1, Roskilde University, PO Box 260, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark Sam Sprik National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401, USA Jan Swart Exponent Failure Analysis Associates, 23445 North 19th Avenue, Phoenix, AZ 85027, USA Peter Van den Bossche Erasmus Hogeschool Brussel, Nijverheidskaai 170, Anderlecht, Belgium xvi Contributors Joeri Van Mierlo Department of Electrical Engineering and Energy Technology (ETEC), Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, Brussels, Belgium Timothy J. Wallington Systems Analytics and Environmental Sciences Department, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan, USA Keith Wipke National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401, USA Calin Zamfirescu Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Ontario, Institute of Technology (UOIT), Oshawa, Ontario, Canada PREFACE In the last 10–15 years, people have become acquainted with vehicles powered not only by an internal combustion engine (using gasoline, diesel or gas), but also by an electric motor.
These hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) afford a reduction of fuel consumption in city driving and reduce emissions, but this is only the first stretch of a long road that will hopefully end with zero-emission electric vehicles (EVs) allowing long-range driving. The first vehicles produced at the beginning of the last century were electric, powered by lead-acid batteries, but they were soon abandoned because of the limited battery performance and the availability of fossil fuels at reasonable costs. However, the situation has radically changed in recent years; high fuel price and dramatic environ mental deterioration have led to reconsider the use of batteries, whose performance, on the other hand, has been steadily increasing since the early 1990s. Nickel-metal hydride (almost exclusively used to the end of 2009, e.
in Toyota Prius and Honda Insight) and the forthcoming Li-ion batteries (now used in recently produced electric vehicles, e. Nissan Leaf and Mitsubishi i-MiEV) have satisfactory energy and power features. In this book, the performance, cost, safety and sustainability of these and other battery systems for HEVs and EVs are thoroughly reviewed (parti cularly in Chapters 8 and 13–19). Attention is also given to fuel cell systems, as research in this area is more active than ever, and prototypes of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are already circulating (e.
Honda FCX Clarity and GM Hydrogen4), although their cost places commercialization a long- way ahead (Chapters 9–12). Throughout this book, especially in the first chapters, alternative vehicles with different powertrains are compared in terms of lifetime cost, fuel consumption and environmental impact. The emissions of greenhouse gases have been particularly dealt with. In general, how far is, and how much substantial will be, the penetration of alter native vehicles into the market? The answer to this question has to be based on the assumption of models taking into account such factors as the fraction of electricity produced by renewable sources and the level of CO2 considered acceptable (as is done especially in Chapters 4 and 21).
However, according to some surveys, many drivers seem less attracted by environmental issues and more by vehicle performance and cost. In this respect, improvement of the battery, or fuel cell, performance and governmental incentives will play a fundamental role. An adequate recharging infrastructure is also of paramount importance for the diffusion of vehicles powered by batteries and fuel cells, as it may contribute to overcome xvii xviii Preface the so-called “range anxiety”. The battery charging techniques proposed are summarized in Chapter 20, while hydrogen refueling stations are described in Chapter 12.
Finally, in Chapter 22, the state of the art of the current models of hybrid and electric vehicles (as of the beginning of 2010) is reviewed along with the powertrain solutions adopted by the major automakers. Gianfranco Pistoia CHAPTER ONE Economic and Environmental Comparison of Conventional and Alternative Vehicle Options Ibrahim Dincer1, Marc A. Rosen and Calin Zamfirescu Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Ontario, Institute of Technology (UOIT), Oshawa, Ontario, Canada Contents 1.1 Technical and economical criteria 3 2.2 Environmental impact criteria 5 2.3 Normalization and the general indicator 10 3. Results and Discussion 11 4.
Conclusions 15 Acknowledgement 15 Nomenclature 16 Greek symbols 16 Subscripts 16 References 16 1. INTRODUCTION Of the major industries that have to adapt and reconfigure to meet present requirements for sustainable development, vehicle manufacturing is one of the more significant. One component of sustainability requires the design of environmentally benign vehicles characterized by no or little atmospheric pollution during operation. The design of such vehicles requires, among other developments, improvements in powertrain systems, fuel processing, and power conversion technologies.
Opportunities for utilizing various fuels for vehicle propulsion, with an emphasis on synthetic fuels (e., hydrogen, biodiesel, bioethanol, dimethylether, ammonia, etc.) as well as electri city via electrical batteries, have been analyzed over the last decade and summarized in Refs [1–3]. In analyzing a vehicle propulsion and fueling system, it is necessary to consider all stages of the life cycle starting from the extraction of natural resources to produce 1 Corresponding author: Ibrahim.ca Electric and Hybrid Vehicles © 2010 Elsevier B.00001-4 All rights reserved. 1 2 Ibrahim Dincer et al. materials and ending with conversion of the energy stored onboard the vehicle into mechanical energy for vehicle displacement and other purposes (heating, cooling, lighting, etc.
All life cycle stages preceding fuel utilization on the vehicle influence the overall efficiency and environmental impact. In addition, vehicle production stages and end-of-life disposal contribute substantially when quantifying the life cycle envir onmental impact of fuel-propulsion alternatives. Cost-effectiveness is also a decisive factor contributing to the development of an environmentally benign transportation sector. This chapter extends and updates the approach by Granovskii et al.
[1] which evaluates, based on actual cost data, the life cycle indicators for vehicle production and utilization stages and performs a comparison of four kinds of fuel-propulsion vehicle alternatives. We consider in the present analysis two additional kinds of vehicles, both of which are zero polluting at fuel utilization stage (during vehicle operation). One uses hydrogen as a fuel in an internal combustion engine (ICE), while the second uses ammonia as a hydrogen fuel source to drive an ICE.