PHASE CHANGES IN PLANT DEVELOPMENT WITH RESPECT TO FLORAL TRANSITION AND SECONDARY XYLEM FORMATION By Sookyung Oh A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Plant Breeding and Genetics Program Department of Horticulture 2006 UMI Number: 3236388 INFORMATION TO USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleed-through, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.
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Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346 ABSTRACT PHASE CHANGES IN PLANT DEVELOPMENT WITH RESPECT TO FLORAL _ TRANSITION AND SECONDARY XYLEM FORMATION By Sookyung Oh During development, plants undergo a switch in the potential of meristems, termed “phase change”. Phase changes are initiated by competency of meristems to respond to internal and external developmental cues, and the changes are characterized by a unique set of morphological and physiological traits. Our understanding of how phase change is regulated at the molecular level is less clear. My thesis is to understand the molecular mechanism underlying phase changes in plants, by investigating the transition of vegetative to reproductive and of primary to secondary growth.
First, a functional genomic approach was employed to identify genes involved in sequential events of wood formation using Arabidopsis thaliana as a model. Several candidate genes and potential regulatory cis-elements were identified that may play key roles in the genetic regulation of secondary growth. In addition, functional category analysis of the genes suggests the involvement of specific transcription factors in the transition from primary to secondary growth. Second, to better understand molecular mechanism of flowering, I undertook a genetic and molecular analysis of the early-flowering vernalization independence 5 (vip5) and vip6 mutants.
VIP5 and VIP6 were cloned through mapping and transcriptional profiling. Both proteins are closely related to distinct components of budding yeast Paf1C, a transcription factor that assists in establishment and/or maintenance of transcription-promotive chromatin modifications. Loss of function of VIP5 and VIP6 resulted in downregulation of FLC/MAF MADS-domain gene family. The results suggest that an evolutionary conserved transcriptional mechanism plays an essential role in the floral transition.
Finally, I explored the mechanism of VIP proteins in transcription by characterizing the effects of loss of VIP genes on histone modifications, Pol II distribution, and phosphorylation of carboxyl-terminal domain (CTD) of Pol II. VIP proteins are required for chromatin modifications in a locus-specific manner, recruitment of Pol II, and dephosphorylation of CTD, suggesting a significant role of VIP in Pol H-mediated transcription. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to acknowledge people for helping me during my doctoral work. First, I would like to especially and sincerely thank my advisor, Dr.
Steven van Nocker for his guidance, encouragement, and support at all levels. I would also like to thank my committee members Dr. Zach Burton, Dr. Rebecca Grumet, Dr.
Jim Hancock and Dr. Amy lezzoni for their continual encouragement and offering constructive comments. I would like to thank colleagues in van Nocker laboratory, including Sunchung Park, Hua Zhang, Philip Ludwig, Lingxia Sun, Ying Yan, and Julissa Ek-Ramos. Finally, I would like to thank my family for their life-long love and encouragement.
I am especially grateful to my husband, Sunchung, for his support. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES. Vili LIST OF FIGURES. ix CHAPTER I: LITERATURE REV HE Y.
Phase change in plants 07. Plants produce wood through secondary growth. Hormones and wounding have positive effects on wood formation. Wood bioSynnth€SIS.
óc TH ng ng TH TT TH Tàn TH 00 001 0g 7 2. Model systems for studying wood formatiOT. Functional genomic approaches to wood formation .cscseecssetseeeeeeeeeeenees 10 P9 on nh. 12 ENjiovrI0svc ii.
Cellular memory and chromatin Structure. Molecular and epigenetic mechanisms mediating vernalization. HH TH ng TH ng HH TT T000 27 li. 28 CHAPTER II: Transcriptional Regulation of Secondary Growth in Arabidopsis HA Í[(HHÁ.
co cọ H1 T9 HN HN 00100 1000400009000400800000009180000091600800086 41 ÂU 2n hố. HT HT HH Hà TT TH TH TT n0 0018130 43 Materials and Methods.- HH HH HT TT Hà Hà tà TH TT ng 1á xe 45 Plant growth and treatment for wood formation in Arabidopsis .- 45 RNA extraction and CDNA synthesis. sóng HH HH tre 46 39/2034: 700ẺẺẼ0Ẻ7Ẻ78e. 47 GeneChip array hybr1d1zafiOT.
-- c1 11911111 111 111g Hà HH nh HH Hy 47 Datta analySis 000Ẽ8ẼẺẼ886. 48 Northern blot analysis of selected R2R3-type MYB genes. 49 Analysis of cis-regulatory elements.ccccesccecscesscssscesecesneecsatestaeseateesetessateeneoes 50 Results and D1SCUSSIOTI. Q19 9T g9 1 HH TT ng kg 51 Secondary xylem formation in ArabidOpsis.
Ăn HH HH Hệ, 51 Differential gene expression in treatment stem, bark and xylem. - «nh HT ng HH Hàn H00 010011111 1101111010111101710 59 Cell wall synthesis. án” TT HH TT HH 1 T11 11 01018101007 60 fan) 7e. 64 Transcriptional regulation of secondary xylem formatiOn.
- 2c ccecceeee 65 Identification of regulatory cis-elements for secondary growth. cscsesesessecsserersecseesseseesecenessassesssssesssssasssssesessasesecsesssessesaeensesseseesseseresneges 78 CHAPTER III: A Mechanism Related to the Yeast Transcriptional Regulator Paf1C Is Required for Expression of the Arabidopsis FLC/MAF MADS Box Gene Familly. ee ececessesesesseseesessecsseseesssasseesensesseeesussessesasscsscessussceecsessessesssensessesseaeees 86 Materials and MethOs.- LH ng HH Tu nu THẾ 89 Plant and Yeast Material and ManipulatiO'iS. sáng 89 Cloning Of VIPG wo.
cecccscsscesscesecssecscceseeeaceseceessseesesesessscsasenssonaesseseesesseeensseaeessaseeen 90 Molecular T'echniQU€S.-- ‹ c1 9T ng ng gu ng 90 šg0)⁄0. c1 9v TT TH nh nọ TH HH HH 92 Rss0i5;1020ir1A4- 0 0ẺẼ 18. 93 Microarray ATiAÌYSIS. ch HH HT TT nọ TH ng gu HH HH 94 TT.
95 VIP5 and VIP6 Function in Concert with VIP3 and WÏP4. sex 95 VIPS and VIP6 Participate in the Regulation of a Heterogeneous Subset of Genes Including Other Members of the FLC/MAF Gene Family .cccsessscesesesesereeeeeees 96 VIP6 Encodes a Plant Homolog of the Paf1C Component Ctr9. --- ‹+- 103 The VIP6 Protein Physically Interacts with VIP3 and VIP4 in Vivo. 109 VIP5 Encodes an Additional Paf1C Subunit Homolog.- -¿- 5-5555: 113 VIP Genes Are Not Required for Global Methylation of Histone H3.
115 The VIP Genes Have a Central Role in Flowering through Activation of the FLC/MAF Gene FamlÏy. nàng HH ng 0010101 k1 010111 HH. 115 VIP5 and VIP6 Define Important Pleiotropic Regulators of Developmert. 118 The VIP Genes Cooperatively Regulate Gene Expression through a Mechanism Related to the Yeast Transcriptional Regulator Paf1C 0.ccssssessersesersesesseeenees 119 9x NA ốm.
125 CHAPTER IV: Global and Locus-Specific Roles for Arabidopsis PafÍC Homologs in Transcription and Chromatin Modifications —¬. G1 ng HH TT TT TH TT Cu no TT gu ng eg 132 Materials and Methods.- -ó- 0 Án TH ng HH ng HH ng ng 136 Plant Materials .- G ch TT TT nu TH HT ng ng cung 136 Isolation of histones .ccssccsessesssscsssssescsscsssscssssesscescsecscescsevscsseeseeaseaecssenseaceasaces 136 vi ˆ9ìiïis (1>.- cv 9T 9T HT TH nh gu ng nàn 137 Electrophoresis and ImmunoblÏOffIngE. «s2 HH Hư 138 Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (CÍP).- ác HH HH HH Hiệu 138 RESUS. 139 VIP3 is not required for global modification of either canonical or variant histone 6.
139 VIP3 is required for H3 methylation in a locus-specific manner.-- -- 140 Mutation of VIP3 is associated with a reduction of Pol If on FLC chromatin. 143 VIP genes are required for modification of CTD of Pol ÏT. HH HT HT HT TT TT TT TT HH TH HH TT TT ch tưng nh 152 CHAPTER V: Perspectives and Future DireCfÏOTS.cscsĂcsĂSSSSSSASessessesee 156 - VỊP complex is required for histone H3 methylation in a locus-specific manner. 157 VIP3 may be a higher eukaryote-specific component of Paf1 C.
--- +2 158 VIP complex is required for Ser-2 and Ser-5 phosphorylation of CTD of Pol H. 164 APPENDIX A: Protocol for extraction of hisfOnS.o-os 525516565555 168 APPENDIX B: Primers for ChIP analysis .cccscssosssesesesssesesssscsssessessssessesseessees 170 APPENDIX C: Protocol for ChIP analysis `. 172 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 2-1. Expression patterns of selected xylogenesis-related genes.
Regulatory cis-element motifs identified from the promoter regions of the genes up-regulated in wood-forming SteMS 0. cece - ch HH Hà Hàn th HH 77 Table 4-1. Partial list of genes down-regulated in both the vip5 and vip6 mutants, relative tO 0): 111. List of primers and S€qU€TC€S.
6 n1 11111 11911811 11191 1 1 ng nh 171 vii LIST OE EIGURES Figure 1-1. Organization of the primary and secondary vascular tissues in Arabidopsis SCheMatically. cs cecsccscssccscsecssseeescceeceseescesecsecscceseeeesesseeeeesssseeseseseeseeseseesseeeaseneeesesseseseeaees 4 Figure 1-2. Flowering time control in Arabidopsis.
Maintenance of active and repressed states of FLC transcription by chromatin „0919514150002. Cross-sections of control and treatment stems of Arabidopsis thaliana. Venn diagram showing up-regulated (22-fold) genes in control and treatment stems, xylem, and bark from the Arabidopsis Genome array analyses. Functional classification of the up-regulated genes in control and treatment Stems, bark and xylem.
R2R3-type MYB transcription factor genes up-regulated in xylem (A) or bark 0 ố ố ốốốố. Northern blot analysis of selected R2R3-type MYB genes that were highly up-regulated in xylem (MYB59 and MYB48) or bark (Ä4YB13). 5 sec cscerseseee 69 Figure 2-6. Phylogenetic tree of homeodomain (HD) genes.
Hierarchical clustering of differentially regulated genes and selection of xylem (Group I) and bark (Group II) up-regulated genes. Flowering Time of vip3, vip4, vip5, and vip6 Single and Double Mutants. Characteristics of Microarray Data Derived from fle, vip5, and vip6 Mutants. Expression of the FLC-Related MAF Genes in flc, vip5, and vip6 Mutants.
Map Position, Structure, and Expression of the VIP6 Gene and Protein. Analysis of VIP6 mRNA and Protein Abundance in Various Genetic Backgrounds and in Response to Vernalization. Coimmunoprecipitation of VIP3, VIP4, VIP5, and VIP6 in Vivo. Structure and Expression Of ƒ/ÏPŠ.
Immunoblot Analysis of Histone H3 Methylation in Strong vip3, vip4, vip5, and vip6 Mutants, the flc-3 Null Mutant, and the Col Ecotype. VIP3 is not required for global modification of either canonical or variant II) 0:06. VIP3 is required for histone H3 methylation in a locus-specific manner. VIP-FLAG proteins do not appear to coprecipitate with Pol II.
VIP genes are required for modification of the CTD of Pol II. The phosphorylation cycle of the CTD of Pol TH. --- c5 +s«c<<ccs<ss+ 162 CHAPTER I LITERATURE REVIEW 1. Phase change in plants During their life cycle, plants go through a succession of developmental phases distinguished from one another by various morphological, physiological, and biochemical traits, and the phenomenon is so-called phase change (Brink, 1962).
The phase changes begin with seed germination, and progress generally through juvenility, maturity, and flowering. The changes are associated with competence of the meristems (a tissue populated by actively dividing and undifferentiated cells) responding to internal and external developmental cues (Bernier, 1981; Steeves and Sussex, 1989). Understanding the mechanisms by which developmental phase changes are regulated will be a perpetual question throughout plant biology because they are controlled by myriad signal transduction pathways. The most obvious example of phase change is the transition from vegetative to reproductive development when leaf development is arrested and meristems are differentiated as flowers (Poethig, 1990).
Although the floral transition has been extensively studied, and as a result, many components of flowering pathways have been identified and characterized, the biochemical roles of them in cellular heredity during floral transition are less studied. Another example of phase change is the transition from primary to secondary growth responsible for lateral growth in most tree species, and the study of molecular mechanism for secondary growth is very limited despite its economical and ecological significance.