PART ONE: INTRODUCTION 1. Rationale Passive sentences are typical structures in Indo-European languages. A lot of research about the passive phenomenon has been done, providing a wide variety of features of passive structures cross-linguistically (e. Keenan, 1976; Freidin, 1975; Permutter, 1978; Zaenen, 1983; Langacker, 1990; Tomlin, 1995.) Each school of linguistics has displayed its own ways of analyzing the passive structures, thus posing trouble for learners and for novice researchers in settling a standpoint in grasping and understanding the fundamental semantic and syntactic structure of this phenomenon in languages.
The following example illustrates this point. Sentences (a) and (b) below describe a state in which a male person carries a box from one place to another: (a) He moved the box into the room. (b) The box was moved into the room (by him.) Both sentences, (a) and (b), refer to one event with the same actor. Syntactically, sentence (a) differs from sentence (b) in that the subject/doer in (b) is optional or left out entirely, or optionally expressed obliquely via a by-phrase, and that the object in (a) serves as the subject/patient in (b.) Traditional grammar treats passive voice as the change of the morphology in verbs, with the inversion of the subject and object of the sentences.
It has been argued in transformational grammar that passive sentences derive from a D-structure form of so-called active sentences. It is the NP-MOVEMENT (c. Radford, 1988:420) that brings to life passive sentences. Generative grammar 1 z offers an analysis of the change from active to passive structures, attributing the shift through a „multilevel syntagmatic structure‟ in which the „deep structure (or initial stratum) is basically active in organization‟ (Langacker, 1990.) Passive structures are also argued to belong to a class of expression known as idioms chunks (c.) And NPs in passive sentences do not have the same syntactic freedom of distribution as other NPs.
Another argument is formulated in relation to thematic relations. It is claimed that active Objects (i. Objects of active sentences) play the same thematic role as the corresponding passive Subjects. Another view on passive voice comes from Functionalism.
Functional grammar divides passive structure into three subcategories, depending on the functions that the speakers would like to convey. It is called the pragmatic function of the sentence. For example, when the Agent of the action is unknown to the writers or speakers, passive structures are preferred. Or when the focus of the sentence is the action and the effects of the action, not the doer of the action, passive constructions are applied (c.
Halliday, 1994; Lock, 1996; Downing and Locke, 1992; Givon, 1995.) Semantically, a functional grammarian analyzes constituents in passive grammar based on the functions of the participants in the sentence, namely actor / agent, goal, beneficiary, recipient, etc. Previously mentioned views of linguistics on passive voice have left drawbacks to language users and language teachers. For instance, traditional grammar states that passive voice can be formed if the verb is a transitive one, i. the verb having a direct object.
However, not all transitive verbs can be conjured up in passive structures. Or as stated by generative grammar, passive structures derive from their active counterparts. In reality, no speaker describes an event by forming an active sentence in his/her mind then „transforms‟ it into passives. This will be further discussed later in the study.
2 z It is not until recently that cognitive semantics (or more generally cognitive linguistics) has postulated a different look at language structures. The focus in the study of language shifts from external to internal, mentalist aspects of the human language. Researchers in cognitive science argue that the linguistic structure is a direct reflex of cognition in the sense that a particular linguistic expression is associated with particular ways of conceptualizing a given situation (Lee, 2001: 1). They believe that there exists an interrelationship between thought and meaning.
It is from this point of view that passive sentences are seen from a different angle. The root of the differences mentioned above originates from the theory of meaning. Generative grammar claims that the structure of linguistic expressions is determined by a formal rule system that is largely independent of meaning. Or rather, syntax is independent from meaning while cognitive linguistics claims that language is not an autonomous cognitive faculty (c.) It is therefore absolutely necessary for researchers as well as language learners to take a standpoint in analyzing languages.
In particular, a thorough understanding and fully developed arguments for the explanation of the structure are crucial. A note should be taken here regarding the title of the dissertation. Since the word „perspective‟ in cognitive semantics embraces more than one meaning and has sub- notions hanging with it, this word used in the title may result in misunderstanding. However, the word „perspective‟ in the title is used in purpose.
The meaning of the word „perspective‟ the author wishes to express is that of „view point,‟ „standpoint,‟ „angle,‟ or the like. With the title as it is, the author wishes to analyze the passive structures from the cognitive semantics point of view. More than that, the author wishes to bring a metaphor of the word „perspective‟ to the title, hoping to create a profound and thoughtful meaning of the title of the dissertation. Aims of the study The study aims to provide a critical analysis of three major theoretical approaches of explaining language phenomena.
More particularly, different approaches of linguistics, e. traditional grammar, transformational-generative grammar, on explaining passive voice will be critically explored, thus indicating their strengths and weaknesses, which will help determine more appropriate ways of looking at this language phenomenon. The study aims at presenting another way of analyzing language structures, especially passive structures, based on cognitive linguistics, particularly cognitive semantics, i. based on four major notions: Perspectives, Figure – Ground relationship, Encyclopedic knowledge, and Prototype.
An exploration of cognitive linguistics in general and cognitive semantics in particular will be displayed, thus providing a more interesting and convincing way of looking at the passive voice. Major tenets of cognitive linguistics and features of cognitive semantics will be thoroughly presented, making it possible to come to a conclusion for the betterment of the new school of linguistics. The study will also discuss the possibility of the existence of passive structures in Vietnamese. A prototype view will be applied in analyzing the structures, hopefully contributing another view to the debate over the existence of the so-called passive structures in Vietnamese.
Through the analysis of passive structures, the researcher attempts to present another view of linguistic exploration, interpreting the use of language from the understanding of our cognition through a number of notions in cognitive linguistics, and in cognitive semantics in particular, thus illustrating evidence for the possibility of integrating notions in cognitive semantics in the task of language analysis. Scope of the study As stated previously, one of the aims of this research is to present our understandings of cognitive linguistics and cognitive semantics in particular; therefore, the focus is on displaying major notions of this school of linguistics. In particular, the study confines itself to the notions of perspectives, figure and ground, encyclopedic knowledge, and prototype since these four are fundamental in cognitive linguistics. Regarding passive voice and structures to be analyzed, the study restricts itself to structures with passive form in the main verb, i.
the passive form of the utterance is in the head verb, leaving behind structures consisting of passive forms in other parts of the sentence, e. in the to infinitive, such as need to be repaired. Also, most sentences used as illustrations come from everyday language, thus setting aside extensive complicated sentences found in academic texts or elsewhere. It should be noted here that it is not possible to apply one notion of cognitive linguistics, such as Figure and Ground, in analyzing all kinds of passive structures.
This means that for each sentence, we have different ways of approaching and applying proper notions for explaining. This is due to the fact that language phenomena are various, and as a result, the way to deal with them varies accordingly. Consequently, it is impossible to apply one idea to the explanation of all features of language. However, the study is not going to categorize or classify which kinds of sentences are applicable for which types of notions since it is not the goal of the study.
The last chapter in Part II is an attempt of assembling as many notions as possible in analyzing the phenomenon of passive structures, thus providing a broader view on this feature of language - passive structures. In short, the study will focus on the facets that are applicable in analyzing passive structures, not an overall presentation of the theory of cognitive semantics. Research questions Passive voice in English, or in Indo-European languages in general, has been widely discussed from different points of view. Different papers present different discussions on this language structure.
This study attempts to seek answers to the issues that have not been adequately discussed by many researchers from different schools of linguistics. The questions that the study will investigate will be as follows: a. How is the passive voice seen from the point of view of cognitive semantics? Different major notions of cognitive semantics are applied to discuss the phenomenon, i. passive voice, resulting in 4 subquestions as follows: Subquestion 1: Are passive sentences surface structures of their so-called active counterparts? How are passive and active sentences seen from the notion of „perspective‟ in cognitive semantics? Subquestion 2: How can the notion of Figure and Ground be applied to explain passive structures? Subquestion 3: How can the theory of Frame Semantics and Encyclopedic Semantics be used to examine the acceptability of passive sentences? Subquestion 4: How can the theory of prototype be used to formulate a passive prototype in Vietnamese? b.
Is it possible to integrate the four notions in analyzing passive voice, providing a thorough and profound interpretation of the phenomenon? 6 z 5. This work is not an empirical study which requires experimental and/or experiential data, which is analyzed using quantitative or qualitative methods. In contrast, the study applies the descriptive and analytical methods, presenting the theoretical foundation which is then illustrated by examples with explanations and discussions, thus hopefully reaching conclusions by deductive reasoning. based on the major notions of cognitive semantics, is established; then examples and illustrations are explored based on this framework.
In other words, major notions of the cognitive semantics theory are used as principles from which examples are analyzed, thus helping the researcher come to conclusions. The examples and illustrations given in the discussion are utterances from different specific situations in daily life. Sentences used as examples are cited from either reliable sources or real life situations. All the examples from real life situations, though not recorded and not put in the appendices, were sent to English speaking people to test whether these sentences have a high acceptability in the English language.
More significantly, two native English speakers have been asked to do the proof reading, providing high reliability and validity of the examples used in the work. The research design is presented as follows. First, in order to establish a strong argument for the work to be done, all major points of views and the methods of analyzing passive structures are critically illustrated. Then a framework is set up from the light of cognitive semantics, i.
a framework set up from four major notions of cognitive semantics. Each of these four notions is presented with details and illustrations, with which active and passive structures are analyzed and explained. After that, an integration of these four notions is founded, from which passive structures are analyzed from the overall examination of cognitive semantics. 7 z This dissertation is divided into three parts.
The first one is, as a rule of thumb, the Introduction, which provides the rationale, aims, scope and research questions of the study.