Resilient Energy Systems TOPICS IN SAFETY, RISK, RELIABILITY AND QUALITY Volume 19 Editor Adrian V. Gheorghe Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia, U. Editorial Advisory Board P. Sander, Technical University of Eindhoven, The Netherlands D.
Barrie, Lakehead University, Ontario, Canada R. Leitch, Royal Military College of Science (Cranfield), Shriverham, U. Aims and Scope. Fundamental questions which are being asked these days of all products, processes and services with ever increasing frequency are: What is the risk? How safe is it? How reliable is it? How good is the quality? How much does it cost? This is particularly true as the government, industry, public, customers and society become increasingly informed and articulate.
In practice none of the three topics can be considered in isolation as they all interact and interrelate in very complex and subtle ways and require a range of disciplines for their description and application; they encompass the social, engineering and physical sciences and quantitative disciplines including mathematics, probability theory and statistics. The major objective of the series is to provide series of authoritative texts suitable for academic taught courses, reference purposes, postgraduate and other research and practi- tioners generally working or strongly associated with areas such as: Safety Assessment and Management Emergency Planning Risk Management Reliability Analysis and Assessment Vulnerability Assessment and Management Quality Assurance and Management Special emphasis is placed on texts with regard to readability, relevance, clarity, applicability, rigour and generally sound quantitative content. For further volumes: http://www.com/series/6653 Ion Bostan • Adrian Gheorghe • Valeriu Dulgheru Ion Sobor • Viorel Bostan • Anatolie Sochirean Resilient Energy Systems Renewables: Wind, Solar, Hydro 123 Ion Bostan Adrian Gheorghe Technical University of Moldova Engineering Management Stefan Cel Mare Boulevard 168 and Systems Engineering 2004 Chişinǎu Old Dominion University Republic of Moldova Norfolk, VA, USA Valeriu Dulgheru Ion Sobor Mechanical Engineering Technical University of Moldova Technical University of Moldova Stefan Cel Mare Boulevard 168 Stefan Cel Mare Boulevard 168 2004 Chişinǎu 2004 Chişinǎu Republic of Moldova Republic of Moldova Anatolie Sochirean Viorel Bostan Technical University of Moldova Technical University of Moldova Stefan Cel Mare Boulevard 168 Stefan Cel Mare Boulevard 168 2004 Chişinǎu 2004 Chişinǎu Republic of Moldova Republic of Moldova ISSN 1566-0443 ISBN 978-94-007-4188-1 ISBN 978-94-007-4189-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-4189-8 Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg New York London Library of Congress Control Number: 2012938960 © Springer Science+Business Media B. 2013 This work is subject to copyright.
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The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.com) Contents 1 Introduction. 1 2 Use of Renewable Energy: World, European and National Perspectives .1 Recent Consumption of Primary Energy at World and at National Levels .1 World Consumption of Primary Energy in the World .2 Energy and the Environment .1 Factors that Change the Climate .2 How to Heal Terra .3 Renewable Energy and Sustainable Development.1 Theoretical, Technical and Economical Energy Potential .2 Global Renewable Energy: Its Present and Future .3 Experience of European Countries in RES Promotion and Use .1 The Sun as Energy Source .2 Solar Radiation on the Earth Surface .3 The Sun and the Global Energy Balance .4 Greenhouse Effect Simulation .2 Solar Energy Potential .1 Global Solar Energy Potential.2 Estimation of Available Solar Radiation .3 Solar Energy Conversion Systems .2 Solar Systems for Water Heating .3 Systems for Solar Thermal Energy Conversion into Electrical Energy by Combining the Greenhouse Effect and Air Pressure Difference.4 Solar Systems with Solar Rays’ Concentration. 162 4 Kinetical Energy of River Running Water .1 Classification of Hydropower Systems .2 Global Energy Potential .3 Macro-, Mini- or Micro Hydropower? .4 Calculation of Water Kinetic Energy Potential .5 Flow Rate Measurement .6 How to Choose a Hydro Turbine? .2 Hydraulic Energy Conversion Systems .1 Brief History of Hydraulic Energy Conversion Systems Development .2 Modern Water Wheels .3 Floating Micro Hydroelectric Power Plants for River Water Kinetic Energy Conversion .3 Micro Hydroelectric Power Plant with Pintle and Blades with Rectilinear Profile in Normal Section .2 Modeling of Blades Interaction with the Water .3 Laboratory Testing of the Micro Hydroelectric Power Plant with Pintle .4 Micro Hydroelectric Power Plant with Horizontal Axle and Helical Turbine .2 Some Aspects of Analytic Description of the Basic Geometrical Parameters .3 Modeling of the Blades Interaction with Water .5 Micro Hydropower Plant with Rotor’s Pintle and Hydrodynamic Profile of Blades.2 Research on the Factors of Influence of Kinetic Energy Conversion Efficiency and Design of the Hydrodynamic Rotor .3 Precessional Multiplier as Main Component in the Kinematical Structure of the Micro Hydropower Plant .4 Design, Manufacturing and Testing of Low Speed Centrifugal Pump for Micro Hydropower Plants.5 Development of the Design Concept and Manufacturing of Pilot Station of Polyfunctional Floating Micro Hydro Power Plant for Experimental Research in Real Conditions.6 Floating Micro Hydropower Plants for River Water Kinetic Energy Conversion into Electrical and Mechanical Energy.1 Wind as Energy Source .2 Estimation of the Wind Energy Resources.1 Characteristics and Parameters of the Wind Energy .2 Methodology of Wind Power Potential Estimation .3 Statistics of Wind Climatology and the Wind Atlas .4 Conversion of the Air Flow Kinetic Energy into Mechanical Energy: Betz Limit .1 Wind Energy and Power .2 Wind Turbine in the Air Flow .4 Number of Blades and Rotor Diameter Effect .5 Evolution of Wind Technology Development .1 Commencement of Commercial Technologies .2 Wind Turbine Design .3 Principles of Control of Wind Turbine Power Output to the Grid .4 Constructive Schemes for Generator Operating .5 Blades Manufacturing Materials .6 Large Wind Turbines and Farms .1 Large Wind Turbines: Trends and Objectives .7 Small Power Wind Turbines .1 Global Market Overview, Manufacturing Companies and Incentive Policies .2 Small Power Wind Turbines Designed at the Technical University of Moldova.
420 6 Permanent Magnet Generators (PMG) for Wind Turbines and Micro Hydro Turbines .1 Technical Requirements Imposed to Electric Generators for Hydraulic and Wind Energy Conversion .2 Synchronous Generators with Electric Excitation or Permanent Magnets .3 Constructive Schemes of PMG .4 Example of Wind Turbine PMG Design .1 Main Dimensions of PMG .2 Design of Teeth and Slots Zone and Armature Winding.3 Calculation of Magnetic Circuit.4 Calculation of Parameters .5 External Characteristic of Generator.6 Mass of Active Materials .5 Permanent Magnet Generator as a Component Part of a Wind Turbine. 453 7 Sea Waves Energy .1 Tidal Energy Potential .2 Ocean Currents Energy Potential .3 Ocean Waves Energy Potential .3 Tidal Energy: Theoretical Considerations .3 Amplitude, Cycle Period and Tidal Braking .4 Theoretical Aspects of Wave Energy.1 Some Aspects of Wave Formation .2 Types and Basic Characteristics of Waves .3 Waves and Wind .4 Some Aspects of the Wave Theory .5 Conceptual Systems of Ocean Energy Conversion .1 Classification of Conversion Systems .2 Water Turbines with Submersible Blades .3 Systems Based on the Oscillating Water Column .4 System with Floatable Elements .5 Cost Analysis of a Number of Coastal Systems .6 Wave Energy Capture Systems .1 Tidal Energy Capture Systems .2 Wave Energy Capture Systems .7 Wave Energy Capture Systems, Authors’ Elaborations .1 Wave Energy Conversion Plants .2 Alternative Rotational Motion Summing Mechanisms for Wave Energy Conversion Systems. 506 Chapter 1 Introduction Can you imagine life without television, cars or computers, without being able to prepare your food every day, without lighting in the house, without heating during the cold seasons of the year, etc.? But all this is the result of creative activity of scientists and inventors, especially during the last 200 years. All this may disappear during the first half of the present century, following the drastic depletion of natural reserves of fossil fuels.
Increased energy consumption leads to a continuous increase in the volume of extracting fossil fuels, which provides more than 85% of energy use today. Currently, the annual energy consumption is equivalent to more than 11 billion tons of conventional fuel or 459 EJ (459 1018 J), of which only 15.4% is of non-fossil origin. As the world population increases, and the level of energy endowment of the economy grows, simultaneously, this figure is steadily increasing, which fact will have serious consequences. Most acceptable fuels, economically, – oil and natural gas – are supposed to be about exhausted in 30–50 years.
Today, most of the energy needed for daily consumption is produced by burning fossil fuels – coal, oil and natural gas. Several million years, plants and animals decomposing led to the formation of fossil fuels, which, however, were consumed during about 200 years, practically. Millions of years, Earth’s atmosphere formed a whole plant system, and during a 200 years period, but, particularly in the last 100 years, the environment was seriously jeopardized and the world is facing an ecological disaster. In 1960, 3,000 TWh of electricity were produced and consumed.
In 1970 it increased up to 6,000 TWh. 150,000 TWh were consumed in 2000. Even, if it is possible to reduce electricity consumption in industrialized countries (U., Germany, Japan, etc.) by half, and at the same time to increase consumption per capita, by only 25% of global electricity, in India, China etc. – third world countries, the overall demand would double from the today’s one.
What energy sources are able to meet these requirements? Increasing power generation by burning traditional fossil fuels, would further endanger the ecological system. The expectation of power engineering professionals is based on finding new solutions and processes that I. Bostan et al., Resilient Energy Systems, Topics in Safety, Risk, 1 Reliability and Quality 19, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-4189-8 1, © Springer ScienceCBusiness Media B. 2013 2 1 Introduction would meet the energy needs of the mankind in the coming decades or centuries.
At the forefront, nuclear energy solutions have been related to, but after the power failures (the U. Three Miles Island, Chernobyl in Ukraine, and Fukushima in Japan), the need to develop alternative energy solutions, environmentally friendly, has become an imperative. The concept of energy efficiency (or energy optimization) became, at present, one of the main concerns of the mankind in the whole world. With the first oil crisis of the early 70s, human society began to realize, more than ever the need for a sustainable strategy, by increasing the efficiency of energy use and implementing energy efficiency programs by taking into account the depletion of fossil fuel reserves on Earth.