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For more information about this title, click here Contents Preface . xiii 1 The Study of Corrosion .1 Why Study Corrosion? .2 The Study of Corrosion .3 Needs for Corrosion Education .4 The Functions and Roles of a Corrosion Engineer .5 The Corrosion Engineer’s Education .6 Strategic Impact and Cost of Corrosion Damage .1 Why Metals Corrode .2 Matter Building Blocks .3 Acidity and Alkalinity (pH) .4 Corrosion as a Chemical Reaction .1 Corrosion in Acids .2 Corrosion in Neutral and Alkaline Solutions .5 Surface Area Effect .2 Standard Electrode Potentials .1 The Aluminum-Air Power Source . 62 iii iv Contents 4.5 Reference Half-Cells (Electrodes) .1 Conversion between References .2 Silver/Silver Chloride Reference Electrode .3 Copper/Copper Sulfate Reference Electrode .6 Measuring the Corrosion Potential .8 Potential-pH Diagram .1 E-pH Diagram of Water .2 E-pH Diagrams of Metals . 84 5 Corrosion Kinetics and Applications of Electrochemistry to Corrosion .1 What Is Overpotential? .1 Water Resistivity Measurements .2 Soil Resistivity Measurements .5 Graphical Presentation of Kinetic Data (Evans Diagrams) .1 Activation Controlled Processes .2 Concentration Controlled Processes .6 Examples of Applied Electrochemistry to Corrosion .1 Electrochemical Polarization Corrosion Testing . 144 6 Recognizing the Forms of Corrosion .2 General or Uniform Attack .6 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking .4 Velocity Induced Corrosion .5 Mechanically Assisted Corrosion .1 Stress Corrosion Cracking . 205 7 Corrosion Failures, Factors, and Cells .2 Information to Look For .2 Fluid Velocity Effects .3 Impurities in the Environment .4 Presence of Microbes .5 Presence of Stray Currents .3 Identifying the Corrosion Factors .4 Examples of Corrosion Cells .3 Differential Aeration: Oxygen Concentration Cells .5 Stray Current Cells .7 Surface Film Cells .8 Microbial Corrosion Cells .2 Crevice Corrosion Mitigation .3 Galvanic Corrosion Mitigation .4 Fretting Corrosion Mitigation .5 Mitigation of Stress Corrosion Cracking .6 Visualizing Corrosion Cells . 254 vi Contents 8 Corrosion by Water .1 Importance of Water .2 Corrosion and Water Quality and Availability .3 Condition Assessment Techniques .3 Types of Water .4 Cooling Water Systems .1 Once-Through Systems .5 Steam Generating Systems .1 Treatment of Boiler Feedwater Makeup .2 Fossil Fuel Steam Plants .3 Supercritical Steam Plants .4 Waste Heat Boilers .5 Nuclear Boiling Water Reactors .6 Nuclear Pressurized Water Reactors .7 Corrosion Costs to the Power Industry .1 Langelier Saturation Index .8 Ion-Association Model .1 Limiting Halite Deposition in a Wet High-Temperature Gas Well .2 Identifying Acceptable Operating Range for Ozonated Cooling Systems .3 Optimizing Calcium Phosphate Scale Inhibitor Dosage in a High-TDS Cooling System . 327 Contents vii 9 Atmospheric Corrosion .2 Types of Corrosive Atmospheres .3 Factors Affecting Atmospheric Corrosion .1 Relative Humidity and Dew Point .3 Deposition of Aerosol Particles .4 Measurement of Atmospheric Corrosivity Factors .1 Time of Wetness .5 Atmospheric Corrosivity Classification Schemes .1 Environmental Severity Index .2 ISO Classification of Corrosivity of Atmospheres .3 Maps of Atmospheric Corrosivity .6 Atmospheric Corrosion Tests .7 Corrosion Behavior and Resistance .1 Iron, Steel, and Stainless Steel .2 Copper and Copper Alloys .3 Nickel and Nickel Alloys .4 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys .5 Zinc and Zinc Alloys . 383 10 Corrosion in Soils and Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion .2 Corrosion in Soils .1 Soil Classification .2 Soil Parameters Affecting Corrosivity .3 Soil Corrosivity Classifications .4 Auxiliary Effects of Corrosion Cells .5 Examples of Buried Systems .6 Corrosion of Materials Other Than Steel .3 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion .1 Planktonic or Sessile .2 Microbes Classification .3 Monitoring Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion . 428 11 Materials Selection, Testing, and Design Considerations .2 Complexity of Corrosion Conscious Materials Selection .1 Multiple Forms of Corrosion .2 Multiple Material/ Environment Combinations .3 Precision of Corrosion Data .4 Complexity of Materials/ Performance Interactions .1 Life-Cycle Costing .4 Materials Selection Road Map .1 Identify Initial Slate of Candidate Materials .2 Screen Materials Based on Past Experience .3 Conduct Environmental Assessment .4 Evaluate Materials Based on Potential Corrosion Failure Modes .5 Select Corrosion Prevention and Control Methods .1 Designing Adequate Drainage .2 Adequate Joining and Attachments . 474 Contents ix 12 Corrosion as a Risk .3 Risk and Corrosion Control .4 Key Performance Indicators .1 Cost of Corrosion Key Performance Indicator .2 Corrosion Inhibition Level Key Performance Indicator .3 Completed Maintenance Key Performance Indicator .4 Selecting Key Performance Indicators .5 Risk Assessment Methods .1 Hazard and Operability .2 Failure Modes, Effects, and Criticality Analysis .3 Risk Matrix Methods .4 Fault Tree Analysis .5 Event Tree Analysis .6 Risk-Based Inspection .1 Probability of Failure Assessment .2 Consequence of Failure Assessment .3 Application of Risk-Based Inspection .7 Industrial Example: Transmission Pipelines .1 External Corrosion Damage Assessment .2 Internal Corrosion Damage Assessment .4 In-Line Inspection .1 Cathodic Protection Historical Notes .2 How Cathodic Protection Works in Water .1 Sacrificial Cathodic Protection .2 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection .3 How Cathodic Protection Works in Soils .1 Sacrificial Cathodic Protection .2 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection .4 Anode Backfill .4 How Cathodic Protection Works in Concrete .1 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection .2 Sacrificial Cathodic Protection .5 Cathodic Protection Components .3 Rectified Current Sources .4 Other Current Sources .5 Wires and Cables .6 Potential to Environment .7 Current Requirement Tests .1 Tests for a Coated System .2 Tests for a Bare Structure .8 Stray Current Effects .9 Monitoring Pipeline Cathodic Protection Systems .1 Close Interval Potential Surveys .3 Direct and Alternating Current Voltage Gradient Surveys .10 Simulation and Optimization of Cathodic Protection Designs .1 Modeling Ship Impressed Current Cathodic Protection .2 Modeling Cathodic Protection in the Presence of Interference .1 Types of Coatings .2 Why Coatings Fail .3 Soluble Salts and Coating Failures .4 Economic Aspects of Coatings Selection and Maintenance .1 Jointing Compounds and Sealants .2 Corrosion Prevention Compounds .3 Volatile Corrosion Inhibitors .2 Ceramics and Glass .3 Hot-Dip Galvanizing .9 Coating Inspection and Testing .1 Condition of the Substrate .2 Condition of the Existing Coating System .1 Principles of Coating Adhesion .4 Wet Abrasive Blasting .5 Other Surface Preparation Methods . 661 15 High-Temperature Corrosion .1 Standard Free Energy of Formation .2 Vapor Species Diagrams .3 2D Isothermal Stability Diagrams .1 Scale as a Diffusion Barrier .2 Basic Kinetic Models .3 Pilling-Bedworth Ratio .4 Practical High-Temperature Corrosion Problems .6 Gaseous Halogen Corrosion .7 Fuel Ash and Salt Deposits .8 Corrosion by Molten Salts .9 Corrosion in Liquid Metals . 715 C SI Units Conversion Table .1 How to Read This Table .2 Using the Table . 725 Preface W hen I carried out my first corrosion investigation, some 25 years ago, on what turned out to be a 90-10 copper-nickel tubing Type I pitting problem it never occurred to me that this was indeed to trigger an important transition in my career. Well, that seems to be how many corrosion engineers have stumbled onto what was later to become a central focus of their work. There are many reasons for this. One common factor that often attracts an investigator’s attention is the drastic contrast that exists between the importance and seriousness of a corrosion problem and the size of the damage itself. In my first corrosion investigation a metallurgical microscope of reasonable magnification was required to examine the tubing samples provided. Yet, these microscopic pits were causing a major havoc to the air-cooling system of a relatively modern facility where my laboratory and office were located. Eventually the whole air- conditioning system unit had to be replaced at a cost of over $200,000. The precise root cause of the problem still remains a mystery since a few other systems operating with a common water intake and of the same design and vintage are still in operation today and never suffered Type I pitting problems. My first case also revealed another aspect of many corrosion investigations that is quite fascinating. It has to do with the complexity of the interactions that eventually culminate in a failure or a need to repair. The belief was widespread at the time that many of the corrosion problems could be alleviated with the help of well-designed and calibrated expert systems. In many countries the development of these systems was funded on the premise that these software tools would artificially improve the level of expertise of technical personnel. Of course, this optimistic view could not possibly consider many of the hidden factors that are behind many corrosion situations: unreported system changes, rapid and frequent changes in technical personnel and many other factors that may remain invisibly at work on a micro scale for years before giving the final blow to a system.
