Flight Vehicle Aerodynamics Flight Vehicle Aerodynamics Mark Drela The MIT Press Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England 2014 c Massachusetts Institute of Technology All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechani- cal means (including photocopying, recording, or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the publisher. MIT Press books may be purchased at special quantity discounts for business or sales promotional use. For information, please email special sales@mitpress.
Printed and bound in the United States of America. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available. ISBN 978-0-262-52644-9 Contents ix 5.2 Discrete panel method for a general wake .9 Fuselage wake contraction effect .10 Minimum Induced Drag .1 Minimum induced drag problem statement .2 Optimum normal sheet velocity .3 Optimum potential jump calculation .5 Example optimum load distributions. 119 6 Aerodynamics of Aircraft in Maneuver 123 6.1 Aircraft Motion Definition .1 Aircraft velocity and rotation .2 Body-point velocity .3 Non-Dimensionalization and Parameterization .2 Quasi-steady force and moment parameterization .4 Lifting Surface Theory .1 Vortex/doublet sheet geometry .2 Lifting-surface problem formulation .3 Near-field loads .4 Trefftz-plane loads .5 Vortex Lattice Method .1 Vortex lattice discretization .2 Velocity field representation .3 Flow tangency condition .4 Linear system setup and solution .5 Near-field force and moment calculation .6 Trefftz-plane force calculation .7 Stability and control derivative calculation .6 Slender Body Theory .1 Slender body geometry .2 Slender body flow-field .3 2D unsteady flow interpretation .4 Local 2D far-field.
138 Contents Preface xv Nomenclature xvii 1 Physics of Aerodynamic Flows 1 1.2 Ideal-Gas Thermodynamic Relations .1 Mass, momentum, energy fluxes .2 Volume forces, work rate, heating .3 Surface forces, work rate, heating .4 Integral conservation laws .4 Differential Conservation Equations .3 Surface boundary conditions .5 Units and Parameters .3 Unsteady-flow parameters .4 High Reynolds number flows .1 Requirements for isentropy .3 Speed of sound .4 Total pressure and density .8 Low Speed and Incompressible Flows .9 Vorticity Transport and Irrotationality .1 Helmholtz vorticity transport equation .10 Aerodynamic Flow Categories. 21 2 Flow-Field Modeling 23 2.1 Vector Field Representation Methods .2 Velocity / Vorticity-Source Duality .3 Aerodynamic Modeling – Vorticity and Source Lumping .4 3D Vortex Sheet Strength Divergence Constraint .5 Equivalence of Vortex and Doublet Sheets .6 Integral Velocity / Vorticity-Source Relations .7 Velocity-Potential Integrals .1 Sources in incompressible flow .2 Sources in compressible flow .3 Vorticity in high Reynolds number flows .9 Flow-Field Modeling with Source and Vortex Sheets .1 Source sheet applications .2 Vortex sheet applications .10 Modeling Non-uniqueness .11 2D Far-Field Approximations .1 2D source and vortex distribution far-field .2 Far-field effect of lift and drag .3 Far-field effect of thickness .4 Far-field effect of lift’s pitching moment .6 2D far-field observations .1 3D far-field effect of drag .2 3D far-field effect of volume. 45 Contents vii 3 Viscous Effects in Aerodynamic Flows 47 3.1 Inviscid Flow Model .1 Normal mass flux matching .2 Normal mass flux in real flow .3 Improved Inviscid Flow Models .1 Displacement Body model .2 Wall Transpiration model .4 Improved flow model advantages .4 Viscous Decambering Stall Mechanism .5 Considerations in Flow Model Selection. 53 4 Boundary Layer Analysis 57 4.1 Boundary Layer Flow Features and Overview .2 Defect Integrals and Thicknesses .1 Mass flow comparison .2 Momentum and kinetic energy flow comparisons .3 Other integral thickness interpretations .3 Boundary Layer Governing Equations .1 Thin Shear Layer approximations .2 Boundary layer equations .3 Characteristics of turbulent boundary layers .4 Boundary Layer Response to Pressure and Shear Gradients .5 Integral Boundary Layer Relations .1 Integral momentum equation .2 Integral kinetic energy equation .3 Integral defect evolution .4 Integral defect / profile drag relations .6 Self-Similar Laminar Boundary Layers .7 Self-Similar Turbulent Boundary Layers .8 Axisymmetric Boundary Layers .1 Streamwise and crossflow profiles .2 Infinite swept wing .3 Crossflow gradient effects .10 2D Boundary Layer Solution Methods – Overview .1 Classical boundary layer problem .2 Finite-difference solution methods .3 Integral solution methods .11 Integral Boundary Layer Solution .2 White’s equilibrium method .3 Two-equation methods .4 Viscous dissipation relations .12 Coupling of Potential Flow and Boundary Layers .2 Viscous/inviscid coupling .13 Profile Drag Prediction .1 Wetted-area methods .2 Local-friction and local-dissipation methods .3 Boundary layer calculation methods .2 TS-wave natural transition prediction .3 Influence of shape parameter .4 Transitional separation bubbles.
95 5 Aerodynamic Force Analysis 99 5.1 Near-Field Forces .2 Near-field force calculation .2 Far-Field Forces .3 Flow-Field Idealization .4 Wake Potential Jump .5 Lifting-Line Analysis .6 Idealized Far-Field Drag .1 Profile drag relations .2 Trefftz-plane velocities .3 Induced drag relations .7 Idealized Far-Field Lift and Sideforce .8 Trefftz Plane Integral Evaluation .1 Fourier series method for flat wake .5 Cambered body of revolution .6 Limits of slender-body theory .7 Vortex lift models. 141 7 Unsteady Aerodynamic Flows 143 7.1 Unsteady Flow-Field Representation .2 Unsteady Potential Flow .3 Governing Equations for Unsteady Potential Flow .4 Potential Jump of Unsteady Vortex Sheet .1 Potential-jump convection .5 Unsteady Flow Categories .6 Unsteady Panel Method .1 Sources of unsteadiness .3 Panel method formulation .3 Canonical impulse solutions .4 General motion solution .6 Sinusoidal motion solution. 155 8 Compressible Aerodynamic Flows 159 8.1 Effects of Compressibility .2 Flow-field changes .3 Transonic flow and shock waves .4 Flow-field representation .2 Compressible Flow Quantities .2 Isentropic static density and pressure .3 Shock Waves and Wave Drag .4 Compressible Potential Flows .1 Full potential equation – problem formulation .2 Full potential solution .3 Limitations of full potential solutions .5 Small-Disturbance Compressible Flows .2 Small-disturbance approximation .3 Second-order approximations .4 Perturbation potential flows .5 Ranges of validity .6 Prandtl-Glauert Analysis .1 Prandtl-Glauert interpretation .2 Prandtl-Glauert transformation .3 Prandtl-Glauert equation solution procedure .7 Subsonic Compressible Far-Fields .1 Far-field definition approaches .2 Compressible 2D far-field .3 Compressible 3D far-field .8 Small-Disturbance Supersonic Flows .1 Supersonic flow analysis problem .3 Canonical supersonic flow .5 Wave drag of arbitrary slender bodies of revolution .6 Supersonic lifting flows .1 Onset of transonic flow .2 TSD equation analysis. 197 9 Introduction to Flight Dynamics 201 9.1 Frames of Reference .3 Body Position and Rate Parameters .4 Axis Parameterization and Conventions .6 Aircraft Kinematic Relations .1 Aircraft position rate .2 Aircraft orientation rate .8 Flight Dynamics Formulation .1 Variable and vector definitions .2 General equations of motion .3 Linearized equations of motion .9 Aerodynamic Force and Moment Linearizations .10 Stability Derivative Specification .11 Longitudinal Dynamics Subset .2 Short-period approximation .12 Lateral Dynamics Subset .1 Roll-subsidence approximation .3 Dutch-roll approximation .13 Stability Derivative Estimation.
218 10 Flow-Field and Force Measurement 221 10.1 Wind Tunnel Methods – Overview .2 Direct Force Measurements .1 Force component definitions and rotations .2 Drag measurement error sensitivity .3 Wind Tunnel Corrections .1 2D solid-wall boundaries .2 2D open-jet boundaries .4 3D solid-wall boundaries .5 3D open-jet boundaries .4 2D tunnel drag measurements .1 Flow two-dimensionality requirements .2 Wake momentum drag measurement. 239 Contents xiii A Vector Notation 241 A.1 Vector and Matrix Multiplication .2 Scalar and Vector Derivative Operations .3 Matrix Derivative Operations. 242 B Sheet Jump Relations 243 C 2D Airfoil Far-Field Lift and Drag 245 C.1 Far-Field Model .2 Outer Contour Integration .5 Far-Field Lift/Span .6 Far-Field Drag/Span. 249 D Extended Thin Airfoil Theory 251 D.1 Geometry and Problem Formulation .2 First-Order Solution .1 Source-sheet solution .2 Vortex-sheet solution .3 First-Order Force and Moment Calculation .4 Second-Order Solution .2 Flat elliptical-thickness airfoil.
257 E Prandtl Lifting-Line Wing Theory 259 E.1 Lifting-Line Formulation .4 Elliptical Planform Case .1 Twisted elliptical wing .2 Flat elliptical wing. 263 F Axis Transformations and Rotations 265 F.2 Axis Rotation Relations. 266 Bibliography 269 Index 273 Nomenclature xix K Boundary layer kinetic energy defect, p. 59 Kf Profile drag form factor, p.
89 Kn Knudsen number, p. 1 Coordinate on surface (of sn system), p. 26 l Circuit or control volume integration coordinate, p. 100 L Lift per unit span (in 2D), p.
118 m Boundary layer mass defect, p. 124 n Coordinate normal to surface (of sn system), p. 26 n̂ Unit normal vector, p. 4 Ñ Laminar instability amplitude exponent, p.
1 p Dynamic part of pressure field, p. 124 p̄ Dimensionless roll rate ( = pbref /2V∞ ), p. 125 Pr Prandtl number, p. 10 P Boundary layer momentum defect, p.
124 q̄ Dimensionless pitch rate ( = qcref /2V∞ ), p. 125 q̇S Heating rate per unit area, p. 6 q̇V Heating rate per unit volume, p. 5 q̇ Heat flux vector, p.
6 q∞ Freestream dynamic pressure ( = 12 ρ∞ V∞2 ), p. 12 Q Freestream dynamic pressure, for flight dynamics, p. 209 Q Coefficient in PP2 equation, p. 170 r Cartesian position vector ( = x x̂ + y ŷ + z ẑ ) , p.
3 r Magnitude of Cartesian position vector, ( = x2 + y 2 + z 2 ), p. 3 r Distance to x axis in axisymmetric cases ( = y 2 + z 2 ), p. 124 r̄ Dimensionless yaw rate ( = rbref /2V∞ ), p. 125 R Specific gas constant, p.
2 Preface Objective This book is intended as a general reference for the physics, concepts, theories, and models underlying the discipline of aerodynamics. An overarching theme is the technique of velocity field representation and modeling via source and vorticity fields, and via their sheet, filament, or point-singularity idealizations. These models provide an intuitive feel for aerodynamic flow behavior, and are also the basis of aerodynamic force analysis, drag decomposition, flow interference estimation, wind tunnel corrections, computational methods, and many other important applications. This book covers some topics in depth, while offering introductions or summaries of others.
In particular, Chapters 3,4 on Boundary Layers, Chapter 7 on Unsteady Aerodynamics, and Chapter 9 on Flight Dynamics are intended as introductions and overviews of those topics, which deserve to be properly treated in separate dedicated texts. Similarly, there are only glancing mentions of the related topic of Propulsion, which is its own discipline. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and computational methods in general are indispensable for today’s practicing aerodynamicist. Hence a few computational methods are described here, primarily the vortex lat- tice and panel methods which are based on the source and vorticity flow-field representation.
The main goal is to provide improved understanding of the concepts and physical models which underlie such methods. Most of this book is based on the lecture notes, handouts, and reference materials which have been devel- oped for the course Flight Vehicle Aerodynamics (course number 16.110) taught by the author at MIT’s Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics. This course is intended for first-year graduate students, but has also attracted a significant number of advanced undergraduates. Preparation This book assumes that the reader is well versed in basic physics and vector calculus, and already has had exposure to basic fluid mechanics and aerodynamics.
Hence, little or no space is devoted to introduction or discussion of basic concepts such as fluid velocity, density, pressure, viscosity, stress, etc. Chapter 1 on the Physics of Aerodynamics Flows is intentionally concise, since it is intended primarily as a reference for the underlying physical principles and governing equations of fluid flows rather than as a first introduction to these topics. The author’s course at MIT begins with Chapter 2. Some familiarity with aerodynamics and aeronautics terminology is assumed on the part of the reader.
How- ever, a summary of advanced vector calculus notation is given in Appendix A, since this is not commonly seen in basic vector calculus texts. xvi Preface Acknowledgments The author would like to thank Doug McLean, Alejandra Uranga, and Harold Youngren for their extensive comments, suggestions, and proofreading of this book. It has benefited considerably from their input. Ed Greitzer, and Bob Liebeck have also provided comments and useful feedback on earlier drafts, and helped steer the book towards its final form.
Also very helpful have been the comments, suggestions, and error corrections from the numerous students who have taken the Flight Vehicle Aerodynamics course at MIT.