Environmental Management of Energy from Biofuels and Biofeedstocks Scrivener Publishing 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J Beverly, MA 01915-6106 Publishers at Scrivener Martin Scrivener (martin@scrivenerpublishing.com) Phillip Carmical (pcarmical@scrivenerpublishing.com) Environmental Management of Energy from Biofuels and Biofeedstocks James G. Speight and Kamel Singh Copyright © 2014 by Scrivener Publishing LLC. All rights reserved. Co-published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www. For more information about Scrivener products please visit www. Cover design by Kris Hackerott Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: ISBN 978-1-118-23371-9 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Contents Preface ix 1 Fuels From Biomass 1 1.2 The Growth of Biofuels 3 1.1 Factors Spurring Growth in the Biofuels Market 4 1.2 Challenges to the Wide-Scale Use Of Biofuels 6 1.3 History of Biofuels Programs 7 1.4 Current Biofuel Production 8 1.3 Conventional Biomass Feedstocks 13 1.1 Fuels from Food Fiber and Feed Crops (1st Generation) 13 1.4 Challenges to Conventional Feedstocks 22 1.5 Fuels from Crop Residues, Wood and Dedicated Energy Crops 23 1.1 Characteristics of Cellulosic Biomass 24 1.2 Biomass Residues and Organic Wastes 26 1.6 Technologies for Converting Biomass into Liquid Fuels 33 1.3 Emerging Developments in Conversion Technology 36 1.7 The Biorefinery Concept 38 v vi Contents 1.8 Outlook for Cellulosic Liquid Fuels 42 1.1 Ethanol from Sugars 43 1.2 Ethanol from Starches 44 1.4 Lipid-Derived Biofuels 46 References 48 2 Environmental Aspects 53 2.2 Greenhouse Gas Emissions 57 2.3 Life Cycle Considerations of Biofuels 59 2.1 Feedstock Production, Harvest, Processing, Transport 61 2.4 Refining Feedstocks Into Biofuels 68 2.1 Transport of Feedstocks and Fuel 70 2.3 Results of Well-to-Wheel Analyses 73 2.4 Reducing the Climate Impact of Biofuels 74 2.5 Impact of Growing Biomass 77 2.2 Minimizing Land-Use and Impact on Wildlife 81 2.3 Impact on Soil Quality 83 2.4 Impact on Water Resources 85 2.5 Impact on Air Quality 86 References 87 3 Biofuel Policies 93 3.2 Regional, National and Local Policies 96 3.2 Asia and the Pacific 99 3.3 International Environmental Instruments 108 3.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions 109 3.2 Other Emissions 110 Contents vii 3.4 Standards and Certification Schemes 111 3.5 International Trade 115 References 121 4 The Biofuel Life Cycle 125 4.2 Energy Balance and Energy Efficiency of Biofuels 126 4.3 Ethanol in SI Engines 132 4.4 Ethanol in CI Engines 134 4.1 Vegetable Oil and Animal Fats 141 4.3 Biomass to Liquid 144 References 149 5 Social Aspects 153 5.2 Agricultural and Rural Development 157 5.7 Biofuels for Local Use 169 5.8 Food Versus Fuel Debate 170 5.10 Transport, Storage and Delivery 175 5.11 Government Policies and Regulations 178 References 182 6 The Future of Biofuels 187 6.2 Next Generation Biofuels 191 6.3 Integrated Refining Concepts – The Biorefinery 194 6.1 The Biorefinery Concept 196 6.3 Anaerobic Digestion 201 viii Contents 6.4 Fermentation and Hydrolysis 202 6.4 Strategies for Biofuel Use 204 6.5 Market Barriers of Biofuel 205 6.6 Managing Biofuel Production 207 6.1 Food or Fuel 208 6.2 Non-Food Feedstocks 209 6.7 The Future 210 References 215 Conversion Factors 219 Glossary 221 Index 251 Preface Biomass is a renewable resource, whose utilization has received great atten- tion due to environmental considerations and the increasing demand for energy worldwide. Since the energy crises of the 1970s, many countries have become interested in biomass as a fuel source to expand the develop- ment of domestic and renewable energy sources, reduce the environmental impact of energy production, provide rural prosperity for its poor farmers and bolster a flat agricultural sector.
Biomass energy (bioenergy) can be an important alternative in the future and a more sustainable energy. In fact, for large portions of the rural population of developing countries, and for the poorest section of urban populations, biomass is often the only avail- able and affordable source of energy for satisfying basic needs as cooking and heating. However, for a given feedstock, management includes several important issues that require attention: (1) sustainability, choice of feedstocks and markets (2) chemical composition of the biomass, conversion processes and technologies (3) availability of land and land use, and the earth’s resources (4) the various environmental issues that accompany biomass cultivation and use (5) rural development, prosperity, employment for the poor and landless (6) biofuel life cycle (energy balance and energy efficiency, GHG (greenhouse gas) emissions) (7) policies, subsidies and (8) future for bio- fuels etc. Indeed, while many observers claim that biofuel production and use are an environmental benefit, this is not the case.
Indeed, 1st genera- tion biofuels have a multiplicity of ethical, political, social, economic and environmental concerns and are viewed as competing for agricultural pro- duction destined for food, feed, fibre and fertilizer. The main concerns are that production of 1st generation biofuels competes with food for feedstock and fertile land, potential availability is limited by soil fertility and per hectare yields (1 hectare = 2.47 acres) and that effective savings of carbon dioxide emissions and fossil energy consumption are limited by the high ix x Preface energy input required for crop cultivation and conversion. Liquid biofuels made from sugar, starch and plant oils still represent the only large near- term substitute for petro-fuels and may offer some reprieve to countries grappling with rising oil prices, increasing national and global insecurity, climate instability and local as well as global pollution levels. The debate continues as to the effectiveness of biofuels in addressing such pressing problems.
The environmental risks associated with growing biomass for fuel production such as loss of wild habitat, loss of biodiversity and negative impacts on soil, air and water make the case for carefully managing biofuel production processes to minimize ecological impact. New energy crops, improved management practices (methods of cultivation and harvest), alternative farming methods (reduced soil erosion, improved soil qual- ity, reduced water consumption, reduced susceptibility to pests and dis- eases (minimize usage of herbicides and pesticides) will critically engage the attention of the scientific community, governments and planners. Implementing policies and instruments (certifications and standards) for a sustainable biofuel market and the considerations for international trade must also be critically examined so all stakeholders are treated equitably and emerging producers have a say in the global debate. The importance of the biofuel life cycle in terms of energy and fuel characteristics for some of the more commercially available biofuels such as ethanol, biodiesel, straight vegetable oils, animal fats, dimethyl ether (DME) and biomass to liquids (BtL), in addition to attributes as energy efficiency, engine and vehicle effects, and fuel consumption, must feature prominently in any discussion regarding a suitable substitute for petro- fuels and reducing greenhouse gases.
The social aspects of the management of biofuels (development of agri- culture and rural areas as instruments for expanding markets and creat- ing employment), the role of producing value-added products, the use of subsidies in the development of a biofuel economy and challenges as supplementing typically imported fuels, fuel vs. food debate, logistical concerns related to infrastructure, transport and delivery, and policies and regulations must also be critically engaged by stakeholders as the industry matures. Discussion must also include next generation biofuels, advances in the biorefinery concept, new vehicle technologies, market barriers and upcoming biofuel competitors to round out such a diverse topic. Thus, the focus of the book is to present a historical overview, country perspectives, a description of the use of biomass to produce biofuels, the current and upcoming sources of biofuels, technologies and processes for Preface xi biofuel production, the various types of biofuels and, specifically, the ways and means to make biofuel production sustainable, economically feasible, minimize environmental damage and to deliver on its many promises.
A large task for any alternative fuel in the early stages of its development. Greater public and private sector initiatives will be required to make biofu- els mainstream and a credible alternative to petro-fuels. Speight, PhD, DSc, PhD Laramie, Wyoming, USA Kamel Singh BSc, MSc St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago September 2013.
1 Fuels From Biomass 1.1 Introduction Biomass is a renewable resource, whose utilization has received great atten- tion due to environmental considerations and the increasing demands of energy worldwide. Since the energy crises of the 1970s, many countries have become interested in biomass as a fuel source to expand the develop- ment of domestic and renewable energy sources and reduce the environ- mental impacts of energy production (Seifried and Witzel, 2010). Biomass energy (bioenergy) can be an important alternative in the future as a more sustainable energy supply. Currently, it accounts for 35% of primary energy consumption in developing countries, raising the world total to 14% of primary energy consumption from bioenergy (Demirbaş, 2006; Ericsson and Nilsson, 2006; Speight, 2008; Nersesian, 2010; Speight, 2011a).
It is the main energy source in a number of countries and regions (Hoogwijk et al. In fact, for large portions of the rural populations of develop- ing countries, and for the poorest sections of urban populations, biomass is often the only available and affordable source of energy for basic needs such as cooking and heating (Demirbaş, 2006). 1 2 Environmental Management of Energy Biomass has the largest potential and is considered the best option to insure fuel supply in the future (Speight, 2008; Balat, 2011). As 90% of the world’s population is expected to reside in developing countries by 2050, biomass energy is predicted to be a substantial energy feedstock and vari- ous energy scenarios suggest potential market shares of modern biomass of approximately 10% to 50% till the year 2050 (Hoogwijk et al.
Biomass, mainly in the form of wood, is the oldest form of energy used by humans. Traditionally, biomass has been utilized through direct com- bustion, and this process is still widely used in many parts of the develop- ing world. In industrialized countries, the main biomass processes used in the future are expected to be powered by direct combustion of residues and wastes for electricity generation, bio-ethanol and biodiesel as liquid fuels, and combined heat and power production from energy crops (UNCTAD, 2008; NREL, 2009; Balat, 2011; Lee and Shah, 2013).