org Applied Materials Science Applications of Engineering Materials in Structural, Electronics, Thermal, and Other Industries Deborah D. Chung CRC Press Boca Raton London New York Washington, D. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data McLachlan, Alan Molecular biology of the hepatitis B virus / Alan McLachlan p. Includes bibliographical references and index.0149—dc20 ??-????? CIP Catalog record is available from the Library of Congress This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. All rights reserved. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the personal or internal use of specific clients, may be granted by CRC Press LLC, provided that $.50 per page photo- copied is paid directly to Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923 USA. The fee code for users of the Transactional Reporting Service is ISBN 0-8493-1073-3/01/$0. The fee is subject to change without notice. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying. Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N., Boca Raton, Florida 33431. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe. Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.com © 2001 by Chapman & Hall/CRC CRC Press LLC St. Lucie Press Lewis Publishers Auerbach is an imprint of CRC Press LLC No claim to original U. Government works International Standard Book Number 0-8493-1073-3 Library of Congress Card Number ??-????? Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Printed on acid-free paper ©2001 CRC Press LLC Dedication To the memory of my nanny, Ms. Kwai-Sheung Ng (1893–1986) ©2001 CRC Press LLC www.org The Author Deborah D. Chung is Niagara Mohawk Power Corporation Endowed Chair Professor, Director of the Composite Materials Research Laboratory, and Professor of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at the State University of New York (SUNY) in Buffalo. She holds a Ph. in materials science and an S. degree from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (M.), as well as an M. in engineering science and a B. in engineering and applied science from the California Institute of Technology. Chung is a Fellow of ASM International and of the American Carbon Society, and is past recipient of the Teacher of the Year Award from Tau Beta Pi; the Teetor Educational Award from the Society of Automotive Engineers; the Hardy Gold Medal from the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engi- neers; and the Ladd Award from Carnegie Mellon University. Chung has written or cowritten 322 articles published in journals (88 on carbon, 107 on cement-matrix composites, 31 on metal-matrix composites, 62 on polymer-matrix composites, 12 on metal-semiconductor interfaces, 5 on silicon, and 17 on other topics). She is the author of three books, including Carbon Fiber Composites (Butterworth, 1994) and Composite Materials for Electronic Functions (Trans Tech, 2000), and has edited two books including Materials for Electronic Packaging (Butterworth, 1995). Chung is the holder of 16 patents and has given 125 invited lectures. Her research has covered many materials, including lightweight structural, construction, smart, adsorption, battery electrode, solar cell, and electronic packaging materials. ©2001 CRC Press LLC Preface Materials constitute the foundation of technology. They include metals, polymers, ceramics, semiconductors, and composite materials. The fundamental concepts of materials science are crystal structures, imperfections, phase diagrams, materials processing, and materials properties. They are taught in most universities to mate- rials, mechanical, aerospace, electrical, chemical, and civil engineering undergrad- uate students. However, students need to know not only the fundamental concepts, but also how materials are applied in the real world. Since a large proportion of undergraduate students in engineering go on to become engineers in various indus- tries, it is important for them to learn about applied materials science. Due to the multifunctionality of many materials and the breadth of industrial needs, this book covers structural, electronic, thermal, electrochemical, and other applications of materials in a cross-disciplinary fashion. The materials include met- als, ceramics, polymers, cement, carbon, and composites. The topics are scientifically rich and technologically relevant. Each is covered in a tutorial and up-to-date manner with numerous references cited. The book is suitable for use as a textbook for undergraduate and graduate courses, or as a reference book. The reader should have background in fundamental materials science (at least one course), although some fundamental concepts pertinent to the topics in the chapters are covered in the appendices. ©2001 CRC Press LLC Contents Chapter 1 Introduction to Materials Applications 1.1 Classes of Materials 1.7 Biomedical Applications Bibliography Chapter 2 Materials for Thermal Conduction 2.2 Materials of High Thermal Conductivity 2.1 Metals, Diamond, and Ceramics 2.2 Metal-Matrix Composites 2.1 Aluminum-Matrix Composites 2.2 Copper-Matrix Composites 2.3 Beryllium-Matrix Composites 2.3 Carbon-Matrix Composites 2.4 Carbon and Graphite 2.5 Ceramic-Matrix Composites 2.3 Thermal Interface Materials 2.4 Conclusion References Chapter 3 Polymer-Matrix Composites for Microelectronics 3.2 Applications in Microelectronics 3.3 Polymer-Matrix Composites 3.1 Polymer-Matrix Composites with Continuous Fillers.2 Polymer-Matrix Composites with Discontinuous Fillers 3.4 Summary References ©2001 CRC Press LLC www.org Chapter 4 Materials for Electromagnetic Interference Shielding 4.2 Mechanisms of Shielding 4.3 Composite Materials for Shielding 4.4 Emerging Materials for Shielding 4.5 Conclusion References Chapter 5 Cement-Based Electronics 5.2 Background on Cement-Matrix Composites 5.3 Cement-Based Electrical Circuit Elements 5.4 Cement-Based Sensors 5.5 Cement-Based Thermoelectric Device 5.6 Conclusion References Chapter 6 Self-Sensing of Carbon Fiber Polymer-Matrix Structural Composites 6.6 Sensing Bond Degradation 6.7 Sensing Structural Transitions 6.2 DC Electrical Resistance Analysis 6.8 Sensing Composite Fabrication Process 6.9 Conclusion References Chapter 7 Structural Health Monitoring by Electrical Resistance Measurement 7.2 Carbon Fiber Polymer-Matrix Structural Composites 7.3 Cement-Matrix Composites 7.1 Joints Involving Composite and Concrete by Adhesion ©2001 CRC Press LLC 7.2 Joints Involving Composites by Adhesion 7.3 Joints Involving Steels by Fastening 7.4 Joints Involving Concrete by Pressure Application 7.5 Joints Involving Composites by Fastening 7.5 Conclusion References Chapter 8 Modification of the Surface of Carbon Fibers for Use as a Reinforcement in Composite Materials 8.1 Introduction to Surface Modification 8.2 Introduction to Carbon Fiber Composites 8.3 Surface Modification of Carbon Fibers for Polymer-Matrix Composites 8.4 Surface Modification of Carbon Fibers for Metal-Matrix Composites References Chapter 9 Corrosion Control of Steel-Reinforced Concrete 9.2 Steel Surface Treatment 9.3 Admixtures In Concrete 9.4 Surface Coating on Concrete 9.7 Conclusion Acknowledgment References Chapter 10 Applications of Submicron-Diameter Carbon Filaments 10.3 Electromagnetic Interference Shielding, Electromagnetic Reflection, and Surface Electrical Conduction 10.4 DC Electrical Conduction 10.11 Conclusion Acknowledgment References ©2001 CRC Press LLC Chapter 11 Improving Cement-Based Materials by Using Silica Fume 11.4 Vibration Damping Capacity 11.6 Freeze-Thaw Durability 11.9 Air Void Content and Density 11.11 Steel Rebar Corrosion Resistance 11.12 Alkali-Silica Reactivity Reduction 11.13 Chemical Attack Resistance 11.14 Bond Strength to Steel Rebar 11.16 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 11.20 Conclusion References Appendix A Electrical Behavior of Various Types of Materials Appendix B Temperature Dependence of Electrical Resistivity Appendix C Electrical Measurement Appendix D Dielectric Behavior Appendix E Electromagnetic Measurement Appendix F Thermoelectric Behavior Appendix G Nondestructive Evaluation Appendix H Electrochemical Behavior Appendix I The pn Junction Appendix J Carbon Fibers ©2001 CRC Press LLC www.org Introduction to Materials 1 Applications CONTENTS 1.1 Classes of Materials 1.7 Biomedical Applications Bibliography SYNOPSIS Engineering materials constitute the foundation of technology, whether the technology pertains to structural, electronic, thermal, electrochemical, environ- mental, biomedical, or other applications. The history of human civilization evolved from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age, the Iron Age, the Steel Age, and to the Space Age (contemporaneous with the Electronic Age). Each age is marked by the advent of certain materials. The Iron Age brought tools and utensils. The Steel Age brought rails and the Industrial Revolution. The Space Age brought structural materials (e., composite materials) that are both strong and lightweight. The Electronic Age brought semiconductors. Modern materials include metals, polymers, ceramics, semiconductors, and composite materials. This chapter provides an overview of the classes and applications of materials.1 CLASSES OF MATERIALS Metals, polymers, ceramics, semiconductors, and composite materials constitute the main classes of materials. Metals (including alloys) consist of atoms and are characterized by metallic bonding (i., the valence electrons of each atom are delocalized and shared among ©2001 CRC Press LLC all the atoms). Most of the elements in the Periodic Table are metals. Examples of alloys are Cu-Zn (brass), Fe-C (steel), and Sn-Pb (solder). Alloys are classified according to the majority element present. The main classes of alloys are iron-based alloys for structures; copper-based alloys for piping, utensils, thermal conduction, electrical conduction, etc.; and aluminum-based alloys for lightweight structures and metal-matrix composites. Alloys are almost always in the polycrystalline form. Ceramics are inorganic compounds such as Al2O3 (for spark plugs and for substrates for microelectronics), SiO2 (for electrical insulation in microelectronics), Fe3O4 (ferrite for magnetic memories used in computers), silicates (clay, cement, glass, etc. The main classes of ceramics are oxides, carbides, nitrides, and silicates. Ceramics are typically partly crystalline and partly amorphous. They consist of ions (often atoms as well) and are characterized by ionic bonding and often covalent bonding. Polymers in the form of thermoplastics (nylon, polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, rubber, etc.) consist of molecules that have covalent bonding within each molecule and van der Waals’ forces between them. Polymers in the form of thermosets (e., epoxy, phenolics, etc.) consist of a network of covalent bonds. Polymers are amor- phous, except for a minority of thermoplastics. Due to the bonding, polymers are typically electrical and thermal insulators. However, conducting polymers can be obtained by doping, and conducting polymer-matrix composites can be obtained by the use of conducting fillers. Semiconductors have the highest occupied energy band (the valence band, where the valence electrons reside energetically) full such that the energy gap between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the empty energy band (the conduction band) is small enough for some fraction of the valence electrons to be excited from the valence band to the conduction band by thermal, optical, or other forms of energy. Conventional semiconductors, such as silicon, germanium, and gallium arsenide (GaAs, a compound semiconductor), are covalent network solids. They are usually doped in order to enhance electrical conductivity. They are used in the form of single crystals without dislocations because grain boundaries and dislocations would degrade electrical behavior. Composite materials are multiphase materials obtained by artificial combination of different materials to attain properties that the individual components cannot attain. An example is a lightweight structural composite obtained by embedding continuous carbon fibers in one or more orientations in a polymer matrix. The fibers provide the strength and stiffness while the polymer serves as the binder. Another example is concrete, a structural composite obtained by combining cement (the matrix, i., the binder, obtained by a reaction known as hydration, between cement and water), sand (fine aggregate), gravel (coarse aggregate), and, optionally, other ingredients known as admixtures. Short fibers and silica fume (a fine SiO2 particu- late) are examples of admixtures. In general, composites are classified according to their matrix materials. The main classes of composites are polymer-matrix, cement- matrix, metal-matrix, carbon-matrix, and ceramic-matrix. Polymer-matrix and cement-matrix composites are the most common due to the low cost of fabrication. Polymer-matrix composites are used for lightweight struc- tures (aircraft, sporting goods, wheelchairs, etc.
