Yasir Nawab (Ed.) Textile Engineering De Gruyter Textbook Also of interest Industrial Software Applications Rainer Geisler, 2015 ISBN 978-3-11-037098-0, e-ISBN 978-3-11-037099-7, e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-039678-2 Advanced Process Engineering Control Paul Serban Agachi, Mircea Vasile Cristea, 2016 ISBN 978-3-11-030662-0, e-ISBN 978-3-11-030663-7, e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-038816-9 Basic Process Engineering Control Paul Serban Agachi, Mircea Vasile Cristea, 2014 ISBN 978-3-11-028981-7, e-ISBN 978-3-11-028982-4, e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-037701-9 Process technology André B. de Haan, 2015 ISBN 978-3-11-033671-9, e-ISBN 978-3-11-033672-6, e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-038278-5 Sustainable Process Engineering Andrzej Benedykt Koltuniewicz, 2014 ISBN 978-3-11-030875-4, e-ISBN 978-3-11-030876-1, e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-037326-4 Industrial Separation Processes André G. de Haan, Hans Bosch, 2013 ISBN 978-3-11-030669-9, e-ISBN 978-3-11-030672-9 Textile Engineering An Introduction Edited by Yasir Nawab Editor Dr. Yasir Nawab National Textile University Sheikhupura Road Faisalabad – 37610 Pakistan ynawab@ntu.pk ISBN 978-3-11-041324-3 e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-041326-7 e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-042389-1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A CIP catalog record for this book has been applied for at the Library of Congress.
Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb. © 2016 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston Typesetting: Medienfabrik GmbH, Stuttgart Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck Cover image: Zoonar RF/Zoonar/Thinkstock ∞ Printed on acid-free paper Printed in Germany www.com Foreword Textile engineering deals with the application of science to reveal the relationships between the raw material, process and the finished product to achieve the desired functional or aesthetic effects in the fabric. The success of fabric engineering depends on reliable objective measurements, prediction and control of fabric quality and per- formance attributes. Understanding the theoretical relationships between fabric parameters enables the fabric designer to play with different fibres, yarn tex, threads per centimeter and weave to vary texture and other fabric properties.
These relation- ships provide simplified formulae to facilitate calculations which are of value for cloth engineering, problems of structure and mechanical properties. The authors bring together expertise in textiles – raw materials, yarn manu- facturing, fabric manufacturing, textiles processing, clothing, technical textiles, textiles testing, recycling and disposal of textiles, quality control in textiles and computer applications in textiles and basic principles of design engineering – as a tool to support product development. This book is the culmination of teaching, research and methodology in textile industry. It aims to give the readers a good foun- dation in this area through an in-depth understanding of the principles of physical and mechanical properties of woven textile structures.
It is designed as a textbook for undergraduates in textile engineering and also as a reference book for research scholars. The concepts and applications have been demonstrated by the liberal use of examples. The book gives a flavour of the basics and builds up to predictive mod- eling of some fabric properties. Each chapter gives an abstract of the contents and is concluded, wherever possible, with detailing how these contents can be used and applied in practical situations.
We wish to thank the teachers and researchers in the National Textile University, Faisalabad Pakistan, for their unstinting support in making this endeavor a reality. We also owe our indebtedness to many others who are not mentioned for their indi- rect contributions in enhancing our knowledge and providing us support. We would like to acknowledge De Gruyter Publishing Limited for their encouragement and assistance. It is hoped that this book will fill the vacuum in the literature on textile engineering.
We welcome feedback or suggestions for any errors that may have crept into the book inadvertently. Yasir Nawab Contents 1 Introduction 1 1.1 What is Textile? 1 1.2 History of Textiles 1 1.3 Status of Textiles in World Exports 3 2 Textile Raw Materials 7 2.4 Other Vegetable Fibers 13 2.3 Man-made Fibers 16 2.1 Spinning of Man-made Fibers 16 2.3 Other Synthetic Fibers 20 2.5 Carbon Fiber 22 3 Yarn Manufacturing 25 3.3 Basic Preparatory Processes for Spinning Operations 28 3.1 Preparation of Cotton to Feed the Blow Room 28 3.4 Difference Between Blow Room and Card Cleaning 33 viii Contents 3.3 Open End Rotor Spinning 41 3.4 Air Jet Spinning 42 3.5 Types of Yarns 44 3.1 Staple Spun Yarn 44 3.3 Multifilament Yarn 45 4 Fabric Manufacturing 47 4.2 Warp Preparation Steps 48 4.4 Types of Shedding Mechanism 53 4.5 Types of Picking Mechanism 54 4.4 Water Jet Picking 55 4.5 Air Jet Picking 55 4.9 Comparison of Woven and Knitted Fabrics 59 Contents ix 4.10 Types of Knitting 60 4.2 Weft Knitting Machine Elements 61 4.11 Loop Formation Cycle with Latch Needle 63 4.12 Principle Stitches in Weft Knitting 64 4.13 Knitting Terms and Definition 65 4.2 Technical Face and Back 65 4.3 Wales and Courses 66 4.1 Classification of Warp Knitting Machine 68 4.15 Applications of Knitted Fabrics 69 4.3 Raw Materials for Nonwovens 72 4.17 Manufacturing of Nonwoven 73 4.2 Dry Laid Web 74 4.3 Wet Laid Web 76 4.4 Polymer Laid Web 76 4.20 Characterization of Nonwoven 80 5 Textile Processing 83 5.2 Textile Pre-treatments 83 5.10 Dyes and Pigments 87 5.1 Acid Dyes 88 x Contents 5.1 Exhaust Dyeing Machines 94 5.2 Pad Dyeing Machines 94 5.15 Common Styles of Textile Printing 95 5.16 Common Methods of Textile Printing 96 5.17 Main Steps in Direct Printing 97 5.2 Print-paste Preparation 97 5.2 Stiffening / Hand-building 101 5.3 Easy-care, Wrinkle Recovery and Durable Press Finishing 101 5.4 Water Repellent Finishing 102 5.5 Stain Resistance Finishing 103 5.6 Stain or Soil Release Finishing 103 5.7 Flame Retardant Finishing 104 Contents xi 5.8 Anti-microbial Finishing 105 5.10 Moisture Management Finishing 106 5.11 Anti-static Finishing 106 5.2 What is Garment / Apparel / Clothing? 111 6.3 Types of Garments 111 6.4 Global Apparel Industry 113 6.5 Structure of an Apparel Firm 114 6.7 Finance / Admin Division 116 6.16 Numbering and Bundling 128 6.19 Packing 131 7 Technical Textiles 133 7.2 Functions of Technical Textile 133 7.3 Categories of Technical Textiles 133 xii Contents 7.12 Sporttech 140 8 Textile Testing 143 8.3 Standardization of Testing 143 8.4 Repeatability and Reproducibility 144 8.6 Moisture Content & Moisture Regain 145 8.7 Standard Atmospheric Conditions for Testing 145 8.8 Testing of Fibers 145 8.9 Testing of Yarn 148 8.4 Evenness of Yarn 149 8.6 Cut and Weigh Method 150 8.7 USTER Evenness Tester 151 8.10 Types of Tensile Strength Testing Machines 152 8.3 Tear Tests 153 Contents xiii 8.4 Elmendorf Tear Tester 153 8.5 Bursting Strength of Fabric 154 8.6 Weight per Square Yard (GSM) 155 8.7 Color Fastness to Perspiration 155 8.8 Abrasion Resistance of Fabrics (Accelerator Method) 155 8.10 Water Resistance / Impact Penetration Test 156 8.12 Moisture Management Test 157 8.14 Thermal Transmittance of Textile Materials 157 8.15 Effect of Repeated Home Laundering on Textiles 158 8.16 Colour Fastness to Perspiration 158 8.17 Seam Strength 158 9 Disposal and Recycling of Textiles 161 9.2 Environmental Impacts of Textiles 164 9.1 Impact of Laundering 164 9.2 Impact of Dry Cleaning 165 9.3 Ecologically Beneficial Practices 167 9.1 Conversion to New Products 169 9.2 Wiping and Polishing Cloths 170 9.3 Landfill and Incineration for Energy 170 9.5 Methods of Recycling 170 9.1 Easy Recyclable Textile Products 171 9.2 Single Polymer Design 173 9.6 Easily Separable Components 173 9.7 Solid Waste Management 174 10 Quality Control and Quality Assurance 177 10.2 Transcendental View of Quality 177 10.3 Product-based View 177 10.4 User-based View 178 10.5 Manufacturing-based View 178 10.6 Value-based View 178 10.1 On-line Quality Control System 182 xiv Contents 10.2 Off-line Quality Control System 182 10.9 Quality Assurance Policies and Records 185 10.10 Need of Quality Assurance in Textile Industry 187 10.3 Stimulate Research Effort 187 10.4 Identify and Address the Various Problems 188 10.11 Difference between Quality Assurance and Quality Control 188 11 Computer Applications in Textiles 191 11.3 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) 192 11.3 Other Areas ERP Helping 195 11.5 Data Mining 198 Index 201 List of Contributing Authors Munir Ashraf Tanveer Hussain National Textile University, National Textile University, Faisalabad-Pakistan Faisalabad-Pakistan e-mail: munir.com e-mail: hussain.com Chapter 1 Chapter 5 Khubab Shaker Abher Rasheed National Textile University, National Textile University, Faisalabad-Pakistan Faisalabad-Pakistan e-mail: shaker.com e-mail: abher00@gmail.com Chapter 2 Chapter 6 Madeha Jabbar Abdul Basit National Textile University, National Textile University, Faisalabad-Pakistan Faisalabad-Pakistan e-mail: madihajabbar@gmail.com e-mail: basit_ntu@yahoo.com Chapter 2 Chapter 7 Zulfiqar Ali Fiaz Hussain National Textile University, National Textile University, Faisalabad-Pakistan Faisalabad-Pakistan e-mail: drzulfiqarali70@gmail.com e-mail: fiaz.com Chapter 3 Chapter 8 Khubab Shaker Khurram Shehzad Akhtar National Textile University, National Textile University, Faisalabad-Pakistan Faisalabad-Pakistan e-mail: shaker.com e-mail: khurram.com Chapter 4 Chapter 8 Muhammad Umair Sheraz Ahmad National Textile University, National Textile University, Faisalabad-Pakistan Faisalabad-Pakistan e-mail: umair.com e-mail: itsadeelnaz@hotmail.com Chapter 4 Chapter 8 Waqas Ashraf Muhammad Maqsood National Textile University, National Textile University, Faisalabad-Pakistan Faisalabad-Pakistan e-mail: shwaqas88@gmail.com e-mail: engr.com Chapter 4 Chapter 9 Yasir Nawab Yasir Nawab National Textile University, National Textile University, Faisalabad-Pakistan Faisalabad-Pakistan e-mail: yasir.com e-mail: yasir.com Chapter 4 Chapter 9 xvi List of Contributing Authors Sajjad Ahmad Baig Syed Talha Ali Hamdani National Textile University, National Textile University, Faisalabad-Pakistan Faisalabad-Pakistan e-mail: sajjad.com e-mail: hamdani.com Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Muhammad Zohaib Fazal National Textile University, Faisalabad-Pakistan e-mail: zohaib@ntu.pk Chapter 11 Munir Ashraf 1 Introduction The word textile originated from Latin word Textilis which means woven, fabric, cloth. The textiles can be defined as the products which are formed by the interlacement of fibers or yarn. The broad definition covers any product intermediate or final made in textile industry.
Therefore, the term textile includes fibers, filaments, yarns, woven, knitted and braided cloths as well as nonwoven fabrics.1 What is Textile? A textile product passes through several processes in its manufacturing before it becomes wearable. These processes include spinning, weaving, knitting, processing and garments manufacturing. The flow of these processes is shown in Fig. Textiles Spinning Weaving Knitting Processing Garments manufacturing Fig.1: Process flow of textile product manufacturing.2 History of Textiles The usage of textiles can be traced back to the Neolithic Age (Tab.
The people around 4000 BC invented hand-operated spindles and looms in Europe and the mate- rials used were wool and flax [1].1: Evolution of raw materials and machines to manufacture textile products [1]. Period Evolution Raw Material Spinning Weaving Knitting Stone Age Animal skins ü 4000 BC Wool, flax (linen) ü Hand-operated spindle ü Loom ü 1350 AD Cotton in Central Europe ü Manual spinning wheel ü Treadle loom ü Flyer spinning wheel of Leonardo ü 1350 da Vinci narrow fabric loom ü 1589 Manual knitting loom of W. Lee ü 1764 Cotton, wool, flax ü First spinning machine “Spinning ü Jenny” 1785 First use of steam engines ü Mechanical weaving loom ü 1793–1846 Cotton gin ü Jacquard machine ü Self-acting mule ü Ring spinning machine ü Production of gun cotton ü 1863–1900 Flat knitting machine of J. Lamb ü Viscose fibre, Cupro fibre, Acetate ü Weaving loom with automated weft ü change and electrical drive 1914 Weft insertion with air jet ü 1935–1942 Development of polyamides 6 and ü 6,6, polyurethane, polyester, polyacrylnitrile 1950–1955 Loom with shuttles ( 200 min–1) ü Open-end spinning technology ü Water jet weaving machine ü 1955–1970 Open-end spinning technology ü Water jet weaving machine ü Projectile shuttle and rapier loom ü OE-rotor-spinning machine ü Wave-shed weaving machine ü 1974–1995 OE-friction-spinning machine ü Air-jet weaving machine (900 min–1) ü Multiphase weaving machine ü The spinning and weaving processes changed considerably at the end of the first millennium AD.
In the middle of the 14th century, cotton was introduced in central Europe [1]. Due to the growing world population, the processes developed needed Status of Textiles in World Exports 3 drastic changes to meet the requirements. This led to industrialization. The post- industrialization era witnessed continuous improvement and innovation in textile raw materials, machinery and processes.
Around the middle of the 20th century, significant developments in raw materials like manufacturing of polyamides, polyester, polyacroni- trile and machinery like water-jet weaving looms and open-end spinning machines took place and this process of innovation and improvement is still in continuation.